Advances in Psychology
Vol. 14  No. 04 ( 2024 ), Article ID: 84260 , 9 pages
10.12677/ap.2024.144201

自我客体化与身体觉知关系研究综述

杨艳芬

西南大学心理学部,重庆

收稿日期:2024年2月12日;录用日期:2024年4月2日;发布日期:2024年4月10日

摘要

自我客体化会引发一系列不良影响,是女性现今面临的重要问题之一。身体觉知指个体对内部和外部刺激的意识,对感知自身和他人心理状态十分重要。了解自我客体化和身体觉知间的关系对女性的身心健康有重要意义。自我客体化与较低的身体觉知水平相联系,这可以由资源限制理论来解释。本文通过对自我客体化对身体觉知的影响相关研究进行梳理,对前人研究的不足进行总结,从而为未来的研究方向提供思路。

关键词

自我客体化,身体觉知,女性

A Review of the Relationship between Self-Objectification and Body Awareness

Yanfen Yang

Faculty of Psychology, Southwest University, Chongqing

Received: Feb. 12th, 2024; accepted: Apr. 2nd, 2024; published: Apr. 10th, 2024

ABSTRACT

Self-objectification can lead to a series of negative effects, which is one of the important issues that women face today. Body awareness refers to an individual’s awareness of internal and external stimuli, which is crucial for perceiving their own and others’ psychological states. Understanding the relationship between self-objectification and body awareness is of great significance for women’s physical and mental health. Self objectification is associated with lower levels of physical awareness, which can be explained by the resource limitation theory. This article reviews the impact of self-objectification on body awareness, summarizes the shortcomings of previous research, and provides ideas for future research directions.

Keywords:Self-Objectification, Body Awareness, Women

Copyright © 2024 by author(s) and Hans Publishers Inc.

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution International License (CC BY 4.0).

http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

1. 引言

随着智能手机的普及和互联网的发展,“A4腰”“反手摸肚脐”“锁骨放硬币”等身材挑战频繁地引起讨论和女性的跟风。这些挑战将女性的美丽置于舒适度之上,助长了她们的身材焦虑。客体化理论(Objectification Theory; Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997)认为女性的一些负面经历是由一种对女性进行性客体化的文化造成的。根据客体化理论,自我客体化(Self-Objectification, SO)指女性将他人对自己外表的观点内化,以观察者的视角看待自己的身体自我,只关注自己看起来如何而不关注身体的功能和作用,并形成对身体外表的习惯性监控。自我客体化导致女性专注于她们的外表,而不是她们不可观察的品质,如智力或个性,而外表监控会导致负面的心理结果,包括身体羞耻感和焦虑的增加,以及身体觉知的降低等。自我客体化会影响个体在社交媒体上的活动从而影响他们的自尊与心理健康(Mustafa & Akram, 2022),如自我客体化的个体会有更多的照片编辑行为,而Sun的研究发现自拍编辑正向预测整容意愿,面部不满在这一关系中起中介作用(Sun, 2021)。研究自我客体化的影响因素有助于促进女性和青少年健康的身体形象,对他们的心理健康具有重要的社会意义。

关于身体觉知(Body Awareness)的定义并不统一,有研究将其定义为“对所有外部和内部刺激的意识”(d’Alcalà, Webster, & Esteves, 2015),也有研究只关注对内部刺激的感受而将其定义为“对身体内部感觉的注意力集中和意识”(Mehling, Gopisetty, Daubenmier, Price, Hecht, & Stewart, 2009)。本研究为更全面地总结关于身体觉知的研究,将关注对内外刺激两个方面的感知。身体觉知几乎是所有认知功能的先决条件,它塑造了个体的心理认同(Pia, Garbarini, Fossataro, Fornia, & Berti, 2013)。通过提高内感受的敏感性或准确性可以提高一个人理解他人心理状态的能力,从而促进更好的社会交流(Gao, Ping, & Chen, 2019)。

目前关于身体觉知的研究还比较少,并且对于自我客体化和身体觉知关系也无系统的论述。了解自我客体化与身体觉知间的关系对女性的身心健康有一定的意义,因此本文将对自我客体化对身体觉知的影响及其作用机制进行系统的论述,对已有的研究进行总结和探讨,并对未来的研究方向进行展望。

2. 自我客体化概述

2.1. 自我客体化

客体化理论认为,自我客体化既是一种状态,也是一种特质(Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997)。状态自我客体化(State Self-Objectification)是指对象化凝视的瞬间、情境激活的内化,而特质自我客体化(Trait Self-Objectification)是指对自我客体化状态的体验频率及其对自我建构的重要性。

自我客体化的个体有更高的身体不满意和外貌焦虑。自我客体化高的女性患心理健康问题的风险更高(Jones & Griffiths, 2015; Tiggemann & Williams, 2012),如有更高的身体羞耻感、身材焦虑、抑郁症、功能障碍和饮食紊乱等(Moradi & Huang, 2008; Schaefer & Thompson, 2018)。自我客体化会导致内疚感增加(Calogero & Pina, 2011)、对外表的焦虑(Gay & Castano, 2010)和身体不满(Aubrey, Henson, Hopper, & Smith, 2009)。自我客体化的女孩往往会对自己的外表感到更高的焦虑和羞耻(Dakanalis et al., 2015; Tiggemann & Slater, 2015),从而对身体协调和专注的机会更少,而这与情绪低落、性功能障碍、性行为障碍和饮食紊乱相关(Moradi & Huang, 2008; Roberts, Calogero, & Gervais, 2018; Tiggemann & Williams, 2012)。与穿着毛衣的女性相比,穿着泳装的女性报告了更高的状态自我客体化、身体羞耻和容貌焦虑,以及更低的内在动机,并且运动表现更差(Cox et al., 2020; Dimas, Galway, & Gammage, 2021)。

自我客体化还会损伤个体的认知。外表监控、实际–理想自我差异、消极自我意识情绪、性别图式激活和刻板印象激活等是状态自我客体化与认知表现之间关系的潜在机制,而特质自我客体化则是潜在的调节机制(Winn & Cornelius, 2020)。自我客体化的女性在Stroop任务、数学测试和持续注意力任务中的表现受损(Gervais, Vescio, & Allen, 2011; Guizzo & Cadinu, 2017; Quinn, Kallen, Twenge, & Fredrickson, 2006),说明自我客体化会干扰认知过程(Winn & Cornelius, 2020)。自我客体化增加了从观察者的角度对外表进行负面评价的可能性(Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997),并可能以这种方式增加社会回避(Guo & Wu, 2023)。

2.2. 自我客体化的测量

横向研究中关于自我客体化的问卷测量主要有两种。一是自我客体化量表(Self-Objectification Questionnaire, SOQ; Noll & Fredrickson, 1998),该量表要求被试在1到10的范围内对10个身体属性的重要性进行排序。包括个人对身体外观和身体能力的重视程度,通过分别计算外观属性和能力属性的得分,再用外观属性的值减去能力属性的值,可得到范围再−25到+25的客体化分数,分数越高代表客体化程度越高。而客体化身体意识量表身体监控分量表(the Surveillance Subscale of the Objectified Body Consciousness Scale, OBCS; Mckinley & Hyde, 1996)。该量表采用7点计分测量女性对自身外观的看法,得分越高,代表客体化程度越高。总的来说,对自我客体化的测量主要都是问卷测量,没有较为客观的生理指标等来了解个体的客体化水平。也有研究通过对女性着装的暴露程度进行编码来了解她们的自我客体化得分(Felig, Jordan, Shepard, Courtney, Goldenberg, & Roberts, 2022)。

通过实验操纵自我客体化有较多方式,其基本思想都是将参与者暴露在客体化情境下从而诱发其身体焦虑等。其中最经典的为“毛衣–泳衣范式”,参与者试穿泳装(对比毛衣),然后在全身镜中看着自己,理论上可以诱导参与者的状态自我物化,因为它增加了他们对自己身体外观的关注(Fredrickson et al., 1998)。其他方法包括暴露于客体化的媒体内容(广告、照片等)、放置镜子、让参与者评价他人身体、拍摄参与者等(Kahalon, Shnabel, & Becker, 2018)。

3. 身体觉知概述

3.1. 身体觉知

具身认知认为身体与心理紧密联系,感觉运动体验参与了认知过程,如握拳会影响人们对自己的看法(Schubert, 2004),坐在柔软的椅子上可以预测人们对他人的看法(Ackerman, Nocera, & Bargh, 2010),而身体过程及其体验在其中发挥着重要作用(Häfner, 2013)。身体觉知是与身体形象相关但又不同的概念。虽然身体形象涉及个人对自己身体美学的感知,但身体觉知并不一定涉及评价成分(Seal & Meston, 2020)。身体觉知是自我意识的重要组成部分,因为自我的意识和发展以及体验身份都与身体密切相关(Kjölstad, Gyllensten, & Gard, 2022)。身体生理状况相关的感觉感知,包括内部器官的工作,如心跳或呼吸,是饮食失调的一个关键特征,如神经性厌食症(Demartini et al., 2021)。对身体的感知对于精确的运动控制也必不可少,身体觉知包括意识到身体可见部分是自己的(身体所有权感)和意识到对身体可见部分的自愿行动(代理感)两个部分,其中代理感的前瞻体验可以改善运动控制(Matsumiya, 2021)。通过正念等干预方式可以提高女性的身体觉知(d’Alcalà, Webster, & Esteves, 2015),从而提高她们的性幸福感(Seal & Meston, 2020)。

身体觉知不仅与个人经历有关,从内到外影响我们的关系和行为,而且与群体规范和社会规范有关(Kjölstad et al., 2022)。将身体体验为自己是几乎所有认知功能的先决条件,它塑造了个体的心理认同(Pia, Garbarini, Fossataro, Fornia, & Berti, 2013)。关于社会互动,Gao等人声称他们“提供了身体通过内感受影响社会认知的证据”(Gao, Ping, & Chen, 2019)。他们还发现,提高内感受的敏感性或准确性可以提高一个人理解他人精神状态的能力,从而实现更好的社会沟通(Gao et al., 2019)。

3.2. 身体觉知的测量

关于身体觉知的测量比较多样,既可以采用身体觉知相关问卷进行测量,也可以通过测量一些生理指标来达到目的。身体意识问卷(Body Consciousness Questionnaire, BCQ; Miller, Murphy, & Buss, 1981)将自我意识的概念扩展到身体意识。该量表包含三个分量表,分别是公共身体意识(Public Body Consciousness)、个人身体意识(Private Body Consciousness)和身体能力(Body Competence)。个人身体意识量表包含5个项目,用于测量专注于身体内部感觉的倾向(例如“我对身体内部紧张很敏感”)。公共身体意识包含6个问题,用来评估观察者感知到的身体意识(例如“我非常清楚自己最好和最差的面部特征”)。身体能力包括5个项目,测量个体对身体有效性的感觉。采用李克特5点计分,得分越高代表身体觉知/身体能力越强。进食障碍量表的内感受知觉分量表(the Interoceptive Awareness Subscale of the Eating Disorder Inventory; Garner et al., 1983)可用来测量内感受缺乏,该量表包含10个项目(例如“我不确定自己是否饥饿”),采用6点计分,得分越高代表内感受越缺乏。除了以上采用单一问卷对内感受进行测量外,也有研究采用述情障碍和情绪识别相综合的方式来测量内感受(Muehlenkamp & Saris-Baglama, 2002)。该研究通过对20个项目的多伦多述情障碍量表(The 20-item Toronto Alexithymia Scale; Bagby, Parker, & Taylor, 1994)、身体意识问卷(BCQ)中的个人身体意识问卷(Private Body Consciousness)和饮食失调量表的内感受知觉分量表中的项目进行探索因子分析,提取出含有11个项目公因子“述情障碍”,使用这一因子和TAS-20 (The 20-item Toronto Alexithymia Scale)的情绪识别分量表(TAS-“Identification of Emotions”)对内部感受(Internal Awareness)进行测量。有研究使用感知心率任务测量内感受意识(Ainley & Tsakiris, 2013; Demartini et al., 2021)。该任务要求被试安静地坐着,听自己的心跳,并尝试在60秒内计算自己的心率(不适用手指测量脉搏)。心率也用自动血压仪进行了客观测量,内感受的计算方法为

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得分越高代表内感受意识越强。

3.3. 自我客体化对身体觉知的理论解释

关于自我客体化和身体觉知间的关系,最开始在提出客体化理论时,Fredrickson和Roberts (1997)就提出自我客体化可能会导致女性的内感受能力降低,并从认知资源的角度进行了解释。资源限制理论最开始于1973年由卡尼曼提出,该理论认为个人的注意资源是有限的,完成每项任务都需要用到注意资源,因此当个体将所有的注意资源放在一项事物时,别的事物将得不到足够的加工。线索竞争假说(Pennebaker, 1982; Pennebaker & Lightner, 1980)认为对内部刺激的关注会减少对外部刺激的注意资源,反之亦然。有进一步的研究表明,对内感受性和外感受性刺激的关注是根据刺激的可靠性来引导的(Ainley, Apps, Fotopoulou, & Tsakiris, 2016)。也就是说,在缺乏准确的内感受感知的情况下,身体意识可能主要基于外感受(如,视觉)线索(Tajadura-Jiménez & Tsakiris, 2014)。自我客体化的女性更加关注自己看起来怎样,这种对外表的关注会减少对身体生理信号(如心跳或温度)的意识,因为这会消耗感知这些信号所需的注意力资源(Fredrickson, Roberts, Noll, Quinn, & Twenge, 1998)。对外表的关注是以对身体内部状态的关注为代价的(Fredrickson et al., 1998)。人们也发现了对此假设机制的支持:暂时关注外表确实会消耗注意力资源(Fredrickson et al., 1998; Quinn et al., 2006)。客体化的个体会持续监控自己的外表,而不是关注内在的身体体验(Kahalon, Shnabel, & Becker, 2018),这种持续的身体监测消耗了认知主观经验所需的认知资源(Winn & Cornelius, 2020),导致他们关注身体感觉的能力会下降。

4. 自我客体化与身体觉知相关研究

4.1. 相关研究

较高的自我客体化与较低的内感受水平似乎是联系在一起的。Muehlenkamp和Saris-Baglama发现了自我客体化和内部意识之间的关系(述情障碍和情绪识别的综合测量),内部意识的缺乏部分中介了自我客体化和抑郁症状(Muehlenkamp & Saris-Baglama, 2002)。自我客体化程度较高的女性报告称,她们感觉自己与身体的联系更少(Piran, Teall, & Counsell, 2020),对身体过程的关注更少,比如识别自己何时发烧或疲劳(Daubenmier, 2005),难以识别饥饿信号(Tiggemann & Williams, 2012)。与自我客体化程度较低的女性相比,她们很难识别和描述自己的情绪(Myers & Crowther, 2008)。通过对寒冷的夜晚酒吧外的女性进行拍照和对她们皮肤暴露程度进行编码发现,更关注自己外表的女性在穿得少时并不觉得更冷,自我客体化程度高的女性难以准确感知寒冷(Felig et al., 2022)。同样,在使用心跳识别任务测量内感受的研究中发现,女性中更高的自我客体化伴随着心跳检测不精确(Ainley & Tsakiris, 2013)。

也有一些研究发现也发现自我客体化与身体觉知间并无相关关系(Daubenmier, 2005; Tiggemann & Kuring, 2004; Tiggemann & Lynch, 2001)。Szymanski等人为了对Fredrickson客体化理论的验证发现,自我客体化随着年龄的增长而减少,并会引起习惯性的身体监控,从而导致幸福感减少,身体羞耻感和外表焦虑增加而导致抑郁,但没有发现自我客体化与身体觉知间存在显著相关(Szymanski & Henning, 2007)。Tiggemann和Kuring在研究自我客体化与饮食失调和抑郁情绪时发现,男性和女性的自我客体化与内部状态的意识无显著的相关(Tiggemann & Kuring, 2004)。

4.2. 实验性研究

一些实验研究发现客体化情境下参与者在运动、情绪和进食等方面有着更差的表现。和穿着宽松隐蔽运动服的参与者相比,穿着紧身暴露的参与者在视觉运动瞄准任务中表现更差(Cox et al., 2020)。通过镜子增加自我客体化的参与者会减少对饱腹感的依赖以至于在摄入高热量的食物或饱腹后继续进食(van de Veer, van Herpen, & van Trijp, 2015)。Demartini等人通过心跳感知任务对神经性厌食组和健康组的内感受准确性进行测量,并通过瑜伽进行干预,结果发现厌食组的参与者的情绪意识可能存在内在缺陷,这使得他们更难调节他们自身的内感受准确性(Demartini et al., 2021)。Eshkevari、Rieger、Longo、Haggard和Treasure (2012)使用“橡胶手错觉”对饮食失调患者的身体自我的研究发现,特质性自我客体化程度较高的女性比特质性自我客体化程度较低的女性更强烈地体验橡胶手错觉,这表明,自我客体化使女性在识别自己的身体和身体感觉时更不准确。

也有实验研究发现自我客体化和身体觉知间无显著关系。一项52名18~33岁的女大学生参与的研究显示,与穿毛衣组相比,穿泳衣组的参与者表现出了更多的自我客体化、更高的身体羞耻感,以及在身体平衡任务中有更低的完成平衡任务的内在动机,但却并未报告更低的内感受知觉(Dimas, Galway, & Gammage, 2021)。

从以上相关和实验研究中可以看出,关于自我客体化和身体觉知间的关系目前的结果并不一致。这可能是测量工具不同引起的。Tylka和Hill (2004)以及Augustus-Horvath和Tylka (2009)表明,自我客体化与一种不同的内部意识测量方法有关,实际研究中应当优先选取信效度高的工具,在对身体意识测量的回顾中,个人意识量表与其他量表相比具有较高的信度和效度(Mehling, Gopisetty, Daubenmier, Price, Hecht, & Stewart, 2009)。同时,不一致的结果可能也与参与者的一些个人因素相关,如年龄。自我客体与年龄密切相关与年轻女性相比,年长女性的自我物化程度更高,并且像运动、瑜伽、自我同情和他人对身体的接受等因素对自我客体化有一定缓解作用(Daniels, Zurbriggen, & Ward, 2020),因此在研究时还需要了解参与者在其他活动的一些表现。

5. 不足与展望

自我客体化是指女性以第三人的视角对自己的身体进行评价,更多关注自己的外表,而不是自己的内部感受。它是女性面临的一个重要问题,对女性的心理健康存在威胁。身体觉知是对身体内部和外部刺激的意识,与身体健康密切相关。已有相关研究中,较少有研究直接探索二者之间的关系,并且多采用问卷研究,研究内容和研究对象都存在一定的局限,未来研究可以从以下几个方面进行改进。

在研究手段上,关于自我客体化与身体觉知间的研究目前较多都为横向研究,自我客体化与身体觉知间的因果关系并不明确,虽然在提出自我客体化这一概念时,Fredrickson和Roberts (1997)就认为自我客体化可能会导致女性对内部的感知能力下降,但也可能较低的内感受意识才是自我客体化的原因(Ainley & Tsakiris, 2013),未来的研究可以通过纵向研究和实验来研究二者的因果关系。同时,对自我客体化和内感受间是否有一定的神经机制也没有研究提到,未来在神经机制方面也需要更多的探讨。

在研究内容上,此外,目前的许多研究都是探索自我客体化与较差的身体觉知间的关系,而没有考虑二者之间是否还有其他的中介变量或者调节变量,比如需要更多的研究来确定分散注意力的能力是否是一个中介变量(Ainley & Tsakiris, 2013),或者需要去挖掘在二者之间的关系中还有些怎样的心理机制。

在研究对象上,自我客体化这一概念最开始是针对女性提出来的,现有的相关研究参与者也有很多女性,未来研究可以多考察男性群体在自我客体化和身体觉知中的表现。不同文化中、不同年龄段的男性的自我客体化及其影响是否和女性一致也值得进一步研究。

6. 结论

自我客体化会引起个体对身体外表的焦虑,从而影响他们的幸福感和心理健康。身体觉知对个人的心理健康具有重要意义,同时也与社会规范有关。目前关于自我客体化和身体觉知研究的结果并不一致,未来的研究需要使用信效度更高的测量工具,并且考虑到参与者的性别、年龄、运动水平等。未来还需要实验和纵向研究来厘清二者间的因果关系,也需要探索二者间的中介和调节变量以及相关的神经机制以了解两者关系中的作用机制。

文章引用

杨艳芬. 自我客体化与身体觉知关系研究综述
A Review of the Relationship between Self-Objectification and Body Awareness[J]. 心理学进展, 2024, 14(04): 125-133. https://doi.org/10.12677/ap.2024.144201

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