Advances in Clinical Medicine
Vol. 14  No. 02 ( 2024 ), Article ID: 81370 , 8 pages
10.12677/ACM.2024.142512

消化道恶性肿瘤并发静脉血栓栓塞的研究进展

开维司尔克孜·开色尔1,张长喜1,罗琴2*

1新疆医科大学附属肿瘤医院,新疆 乌鲁木齐

2新疆医科大学附属肿瘤医院呼吸神经内科,新疆 乌鲁木齐

收稿日期:2024年1月27日;录用日期:2024年2月21日;发布日期:2024年2月27日

摘要

消化道恶性肿瘤是我国常见的恶性肿瘤之一,严重威胁人们的身体健康。消化道恶性肿瘤并发静脉血栓栓塞(venous thromboembolism, VTE)发病率较高,是肿瘤相关VTE中常见的瘤种,既增加了其治疗难度,又增加了病人的死亡率,所以对消化道恶性肿瘤并发血栓栓塞症(VTE)的及时有效诊断和治疗是保证病人预后的关键措施。主要概述静脉血栓栓塞症在消化道恶性肿瘤并发中的研究进展。

关键词

消化道恶性肿瘤,静脉血栓栓塞,危险因素,预防与治疗

Research Progress of Malignant Tumors of Digestive Tract Complicated by Venous Thromboembolism

Kai Weisierkezi·Kaiseer1, Changxi Zhang1, Qin Luo2*

1Cancer Hospital Affiliated to Xinjiang Medical University, Urumqi Xinjiang

2Department of Respiratory Neurology, Cancer Hospital Affiliated to Xinjiang Medical University, Urumqi Xinjiang

Received: Jan. 27th, 2024; accepted: Feb. 21st, 2024; published: Feb. 27th, 2024

ABSTRACT

The alimentary canal malignant tumor is one of the most common malignant tumors in our country, and it is a serious threat to people’s health. The incidence of gastrointestinal cancer complicated by venous thromboembolism (VTE) is high, and it is a common tumor in tumor-associated VTE. It not only increases the difficulty of treatment, but also increases the mortality of patients. Therefore, timely and effective diagnosis and treatment of gastrointestinal malignancy complicated with thromboembolism (VTE) is the key measure to ensure the prognosis of patients. The research progress of venous thromboembolism (VTE) complicated with gastrointestinal malignancies is reviewed.

Keywords:Malignant Tumors of Digestive Tract, Venous Thromboembolism, Risk Factors, Prevention and Treatment

Copyright © 2024 by author(s) and Hans Publishers Inc.

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution International License (CC BY 4.0).

http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

1. 引言

消化道恶性肿瘤(Gastrointestinal cancer,简称GIC)是指原发于消化道部位的恶性肿瘤。是世界范围内主要的恶性肿瘤 [1] ,在肿瘤发病谱中位居第四 [2] ,严重危及病人生命;而静脉血栓栓塞症是一种常见的恶性肿瘤并发症,也是恶性肿瘤病人第二大死因。包括深静脉血栓形成(DVT)和肺血栓栓塞症(PE)。恶性肿瘤是形成VTE的独立危险因子 [3] 。在众多肿瘤相关VTE中,GIc合并VTE发病率较高,其中包括胃癌、胰腺癌是风险最高的肿瘤类型 [4] 。一项纳入了340,946名癌症患者的回顾性研究显示,胰腺癌患者并发VTE的比例是最高的,为14.6%,其次是上消化道肿瘤患者为9.9%,然后是下消化道癌患者,为6.7% [5] 。一直以来恶性肿瘤合并VTE是肿瘤科医师关注的热点,所以对消化道恶性肿瘤并发VTE进行及时准确的诊断,并给予有效的治疗,对提高肿瘤病人的生存质量,延长其生存期,临床上具有十分重要的意义。

2. GIC患者静脉血栓形成的发生机制

GIC肿瘤患者发生静脉血栓的机制比较复杂,除了大家熟知的Virchow三联征(血液高凝状态、血流淤滞、血管内皮损伤),肿瘤患者还存在另外的三联征,包括肿瘤生物学特性改变、凝血因子活化、炎症等 [6] 。恶性肿瘤可使机体出现凝血、抗凝、纤溶机制等异常,在恶性肿瘤患者中易引起血栓性疾病。GIC患者静脉血栓的发生与肿瘤细胞自身的促凝活性以及肿瘤细胞与其他细胞相互作用引起的血小板活化和凝血系统激活有关 [7] 。VTE的多种癌症特异性机制,可以归类为肿瘤表达改变宿主系统的蛋白质(例如血小板和白细胞水平)的机制,以及肿瘤表达释放到循环中的促凝蛋白直接激活凝血级联反应或血小板的机制 [8] 。凝血/纤溶基因在不同原发肿瘤类型中的表达,即所谓的凝血组,取决于癌细胞与其血管微环境的相互作用和表观遗传转化事件。一些致癌突变,如STK11/LKB1、KEAP1、MET、CTNNB1、CDKN2B和KRAS,与血栓形成风险增加相关。与正常细胞相比,癌细胞可能改变了癌症相关血栓栓塞介质的表达,如组织因子(TF/F3)和足蛋白,和其他因素(聚磷酸染色质、内皮细胞蛋白C受体、蛋白酶激活受体1~2 [PAR1~2]、因子VII [FVII]、FVIII、纤溶酶原激活物抑制剂-1、尿激酶型纤溶酶酶原激活剂、尿激酶类型纤溶酶源激活物受体、炎症细胞、中性粒细胞外陷阱) [9] 。研究表明,结直肠癌细胞的组织因子表达受KRAS癌基因的激活与P53抑癌基因的失活调控 [10] 。恶性肿瘤直接浸润、中心静脉置管及肿瘤治疗方式(如手术、放疗、化疗及靶向治疗等)可损伤血管内皮细胞(endothelial cells, ECs),诱导血小板活化和聚集,降低血浆抗凝物质水平,诱导TF释放和降低血栓调节蛋白水平,使凝血过程过度激活,促使血栓形成 [11] 。

此外,肿瘤及癌栓压迫血管腔、恶病质患者长期卧床、因肿瘤所致疼痛或肿瘤术后伤口疼痛而活动减少等,造成血流淤滞,促使血栓形成 [12] [13] 。

癌症患者出现静脉血栓栓塞(VTE)大多数是由众所周知的风险因素引发的,如外科干预、传染病、长期住院、中心静脉导管和化疗、晚期疾病患者、有静脉血栓栓塞个人或家族病史的患者以及遗传性血栓形成倾向携带者是最易受到这种风险的人群 [14] [15] 。

3. VTE对恶性肿瘤患者的影响

长期以来,癌症与血栓栓塞性疾病之间存在着千丝万缕的联系。活动性癌症患者静脉血栓栓塞(VTE)的相对风险比普通人群高得多。据统计,癌症患者静脉血栓栓塞的年发病率为0.5%,而一般人群为0.1% [16] 。活动性癌症占静脉血栓栓塞总发病率的20% [17] 。所有首次发生VTE的患者中,20%~30%与肿瘤有关;VTE在肿瘤病人中的发病率比非肿瘤病人高4~7倍。复发风险高3倍 [18] [19] [20] [21] 。胰腺癌、胃癌、结直肠癌等是几类肿瘤中VTE发病风险最大的一类。其中,胰腺癌患者出现VTE的几率高达35%。胃癌占结肠癌占15% [22] [23] [24] [25] [26] 。在一项前瞻性研究中,在确诊恶性肿瘤或疾病进展后的一年内,8%的癌症患者出现静脉血栓栓塞 [19] 。在英国的另一项研究中,所有癌症中VTE的发病率为13.9/1000人/年 [27] 。在高危患者(包括转移性疾病患者)中,总发病率为68/1000人/年 [28] 。癌症患者出现静脉血栓栓塞(VTE)并发症的风险非常高,其发展预计会增加死亡率,同时也会恶化他们的生活质量。

由此可见,VTE是导致恶性肿瘤患者死亡的主要原因,静脉血栓可能促使恶性肿瘤细胞的生长和转移,而与肿瘤相关的栓塞症的发生则有可能使肿瘤治疗陷入困境,使手术、全身化疗复杂化,增加肿瘤患者的经济负担和严重并发症的风险,对总体生存率有显著的负面影响 [11] 。

4. 消化道恶性肿瘤相关VTE

消化道恶性肿瘤严重危害我国人民的身体健康,据最新统计数据显示,2020年我国癌症新发病例为4,568,754例,其中消化道恶性肿瘤、结直肠癌占胃癌占肝癌占食管癌占胰腺癌占2.70%,均居恶性肿瘤发病率前十位;消化道恶性肿瘤具有起病隐匿、预后差等特点,其死亡率也同样高,2020年全国恶性肿瘤死亡人数为300.3万人,其中消化道恶性肿瘤占肝癌占食管癌占结直肠癌占胰腺癌占4.10%,同样都排在恶性肿瘤死亡率的前十位 [29] 。由此可见,消化道恶性肿瘤的发病和死亡负担仍在日益增长,癌症防治面临严峻的形式。

与其他实体瘤相比,消化道恶性肿瘤患者并发VTE的风险更高 [29] 。一项报道指出,静脉血栓栓塞在胃肠道部位(每100人年/病人百分比)的发病率为胃食管肿瘤胰腺肿瘤20/5~60,结直肠及肛门肿瘤肝胆肿瘤4.6/2~15 [30] 。

可见,消化道恶性肿瘤并发VTE,具有发病率高、隐匿性强、致死率高等特点。加强消化道肿瘤病人VTE防治工作,降低VTE发病率。

4.1. 胰腺癌并发VTE

胰腺癌是恶性肿瘤中静脉血栓栓塞症(VTE)发病率最高的一种。报告发病率在17%至57%之间,与病人固有的高凝状态有关 [31] 。胰腺癌的发病率和死亡率呈逐年上升趋势,胰腺癌患者发生静脉血栓栓塞(VTE)的风险明显增加,特别是在疾病的局部晚期、转移阶段和化疗期间。由于VTE事件,患者的病情往往复杂化,进一步增加死亡风险。Horsted等报道的胰腺癌病程各阶段的VTE发生率为155/1000 [27] 。胰腺癌相关VTE占比如此之高,可能与手术方式有关,也可能与使用化疗药有关,还可能与留置导管有关。下肢VTE形成、血栓性移行性静脉炎、肺栓塞(PE)是较常见的胰腺癌血栓栓塞性疾病 [32] 。下肢深静脉血栓的典型症状有:四肢肿痛,浅静脉曲张,股,股白肿等。经多普勒超声检查,即可确诊。临床症状浅表性血栓静脉炎,有红斑,触痛,硬条索与浅静脉有关,超声检查DVT结果为阴性。典型的肺栓塞(PE)症状有胸痛、呼吸急促、血氧饱和度下降等,有些患者会出现晕厥。胰腺癌合并门静脉血栓的病人预后差,可表现为腹痛、黄疸及进行性腹水等急性或加重症状。综上,及时有效地进行抗凝治疗十分必要。指南建议4周抗凝血,预防胰腺癌手术患者发生血栓事件。术后4周进行抗凝预防,同样可使血栓事件减少50%以上 [33] 。

4.2. 胃癌并发VTE

胃癌(GC)是最易形成血栓的恶性肿瘤之一,它是世界上最常诊断的第五大癌症,也是与癌症相关的第四大死因。2020年,全世界报告了100多万新的胃癌病例和近80万人死于胃癌 [2] 。在我国,很多胃癌患者被发现时已是中晚期,尤其是合并了静脉血栓栓塞症(VTE)的患者。预后更差。先前的研究表明,静脉血栓栓塞是GC患者死亡率的独立预测因子,并且已经确定了GC患者静脉血栓栓塞的几个危险因素,包括年龄、性别、表现形式、进展期、肿瘤分期、浸润深度、手术方式、TNM分期、化疗、贫血和低蛋白血症 [34] 。但目前我国胃癌患者VTE的发病率仍不明确,防治意识有待加强。胃癌患者VTE高发,预后较差,所有胃癌住院患者都需要做VTE风险评估。与其他实体瘤患者相比,胃癌患者的出血风险更高。平衡已知的血栓形成高风险和抗凝治疗相关的出血高风险并不容易。因此,我们更应重视胃癌并发VTE的抗凝治疗。

4.3. 食管癌并发VTE

食管癌是胸部恶性肿瘤中最常见的一种。食管癌病人发生静脉血栓栓塞的几率很高。但报告的发病率是相互矛盾的,范围从4%到33% [35] [36] [37] [38] 。目前还不清楚这些患者在哪个治疗阶段患静脉血栓栓塞的风险最高。与其他主要癌症手术相比,食管癌手术是癌症并发VTE发病率最高的手术 [39] [40] 。曾有报道指出,PTE在食道癌术后发生的几率达到7.3% [41] 。食管癌患者VTE的重要危险因素是外科手术和化疗。虽然用于食管癌的手术技术一直在改善,但术后死亡率和并发症发生率仍高于其他胃肠病外科手术。荷兰阿姆斯特丹大学医学中心,通过对511例食管癌患者进行回顾性研究,得出结论:接受新辅助放化疗和手术的食管癌患者在治疗的所有阶段都存在血栓栓塞和出血事件的很大风险。在随访期间,与无血栓性并发症的患者相比,有血栓栓塞事件的患者的生存率较差 [42] 。然而,另外一项迄今为止最大规模的欧洲系列研究,发现新辅助治疗与静脉血栓栓塞风险之间没有关联。新的辅助治疗并未增加术后VTE的发病风险。在单变量分析中,只有术前放疗的总剂量有显著影响。目前还没有公开数据支持VTE和术前放疗之间的相关性。尽管在接受大型癌症手术的患者中系统地使用了血栓预防,但术后VTE和与PE相关的死亡仍然不容忽视 [40] 。临床医师应考虑在接受食管癌手术的高危患者中减轻这种增加风险的策略,包括延长静脉血栓栓塞预防。血栓并发症的发展与食管癌患者的短期死亡率和长期生存有关。所以肿瘤科医生需要增加对食道癌合并VTE的重视。

4.4. 结直肠癌(CRC)并发VTE

血栓栓塞事件是CRC患者常见的致死原因。即使在癌症预后良好的患者中也是如此。CRC导致凝血系统的上调,在正常生理条件下,外源性凝血途径的引发剂组织因子(TF),由平滑肌细胞和基质成纤维细胞等亚内皮细胞表达。在CRC中,TF在肿瘤细胞上异常表达。TF阳性与临床病理因素密切相关,包括TNM分期和是否存在肝转移。TF表达也与预后不良有关,TF阳性CRC的3年生存率为39%,而TF阴性CRC的3年生存率为88% (p < 0.001) [43] 。

目前CRC治疗以结直肠癌根治术为主,但术后患者需长期卧床,血液回流速度减慢,极易形成静脉血栓,再加上肿瘤的患者的血液常处于高凝血状态,静脉血栓发生几率较高。同时,手术时造成血管内皮细胞损伤,使机体产生更强烈的应激反应,进一步增大了静脉血栓形成的危险 [44] 。研究表明,手术是独立的危险因素,发生静脉血栓栓塞。与其他腹部手术相比,结直肠癌手术患者由于位置特殊、手术时间长 [45] ,尤其是根治性结直肠癌手术后更容易发生静脉血栓栓塞,据报道高达37%~46% [46] 。同时,静脉血栓栓塞也显著影响了手术患者的预后,降低了患者的生活质量 [47] 。CRC背景下的静脉血栓栓塞是一个具有挑战性的临床实体,发病率不断上升,与死亡率、发病率显著相关。静脉血栓栓塞CRC患者的治疗因高复发率和治疗性抗凝治疗引起的出血而复杂化。因此,预防结直肠癌静脉血栓栓塞的有力策略至关重要。结直肠恶性肿瘤患者的静脉血栓栓塞的预防应从风险评估开始。CAPRINI评分是评估围手术期静脉血栓栓塞风险的全球共识 [48] [49] [50] 。根据国内外研究,CAPRINI评分可以有效识别VTE高发人群,分数越高,静脉血栓发生的几率越高 [51] [52] [53] 。根据美国结直肠外科协会提出的指南,低分子肝素是一线选择 [54] 。一些抗凝血新药,如利伐沙班、达比加群等。被用作结直肠癌术后静脉血栓栓塞的预防药物。值得注意的是,有明确的证据表明,预防使用低分子量肝素持续时间延长在腹部及盆腔肿瘤大手术后,可有效降低静脉血栓栓塞的发生率。而不会使出血事件增多 [55] 。

4.5. 原发性肝癌并发VTE

原发性肝癌是恶性程度高、侵袭性强的盆腹腔恶性肿瘤,是一种常见的严重威胁人民群众健康的恶性肿瘤。原发性肝癌是引起VTE的高风险因素;然而,关于原发性肝癌患者静脉血栓栓塞的特点和结果的数据很少。随着全球肥胖症的流行,原发性肝癌的发病率随着非酒精性脂肪性肝病的出现而增加,与其他癌症的死亡率下降相比,肝癌的死亡率正在增加 [56] 。由于肝癌经常并发慢性肝病,原发性肝癌对VTE的发展具有高风险。然而,以往的文献对原发性肝癌并患者静脉血栓栓塞的患病率、特点和影响的描述较少。在一项国外的由270名原发性肝癌患者组成的队列中,16例(5.9%)发生VTE,相当于2年累计发病率5.9% [57] 。这与之前报道的总体癌症人群的发病率相当 [58] 。在这项研究中,静脉血栓栓塞的发展显著恶化了原发性肝癌的预后,这表明有必要在原发性肝癌患者中确定高危人群,以进行初次血栓预防。研究表明,肥胖、Child B肝硬化(与Child A肝硬化相比)、肝内病变数量(>3)和多器官肝外转移是VTE发病率的重要危险因素。肝内肿瘤数量超过3个(与单个肝内肿瘤相比)和多器官肝外转移(与无转移相比)是VTE的强烈危险因素,这表明晚期原发性肝癌可能具有更高的VTE发生风险。不同病因的肝癌在VTE发展方面可能表现不同,因此需要一种独特的初次血栓预防策略 [57] 。在未来的研究中,我们应着重分析不同病因的肝癌的预防。

5. 小结与展望

静脉血栓栓塞症(VTE)在消化系统恶性肿瘤中高发,消化系统恶性肿瘤相对于其他肿瘤,恶性程度高,预后差,VTE的发生进一步增加了消化系统恶性肿瘤患者的死亡率,导致消化系统恶性肿瘤患者治疗周期延长,住院费用增加,加重了肿瘤患者的心理和经济负担。对肿瘤治疗来说是一个严峻的挑战,因此,有效的预测和预防就显得格外重要。及早识别消化系统恶性肿瘤患者VTE发生的危险因素,筛查VTE高危人群,是临床肿瘤相关VTE治疗的重要步骤。因此制定一个针对我国消化系统恶性肿瘤高致VTE瘤种发生风险的评估模型,使消化系统恶性肿瘤患者的VTE预防标准化、科学化、系统化、精确化和个体化,提高患者获益/风险比,减少卫生资源浪费将成为肿瘤科医师未来的探索方向。

文章引用

开维司尔克孜·开色尔,张长喜,罗 琴. 消化道恶性肿瘤并发静脉血栓栓塞的研究进展
Research Progress of Malignant Tumors of Digestive Tract Complicated by Venous Thromboembolism[J]. 临床医学进展, 2024, 14(02): 3667-3674. https://doi.org/10.12677/ACM.2024.142512

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  59. NOTES

    *通讯作者。

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