Advances in Psychology
Vol. 12  No. 03 ( 2022 ), Article ID: 49607 , 8 pages
10.12677/AP.2022.123098

阻碍人际价值观冲突解决的心理机制研究综述

徐颖

西南大学心理学部,重庆

收稿日期:2022年2月13日;录用日期:2022年3月16日;发布日期:2022年3月23日

摘要

以往研究表明,人际价值观冲突往往比人际资源冲突更加难以解决。然而,对于阻碍人际价值观冲突解决的心理机制,目前尚未有研究进行系统探讨。因此,本研究对此进行了系统的讨论和梳理,以期为价值观冲突与人际冲突的研究提供一定的理论视角,并促进人际价值观冲突的解决。从认知评价来看,人际价值观冲突中的个体更可能高估情境要求和低估自身资源;从动机状态来看,人际价值观冲突中的个体更可能表现为威胁动机状态;从自我卷入来看,人际价值观冲突中的个体自我卷入程度更高,这些因素都可能阻碍人际价值观冲突的解决。

关键词

人际价值观冲突,阻碍,心理机制

Literature Review of Psychological Mechanisms Hindering the Resolution of Interpersonal Value Conflicts

Ying Xu

Faculty of Psychology, Southwest University, Chongqing

Received: Feb. 13th, 2022; accepted: Mar. 16th, 2022; published: Mar. 23rd, 2022

ABSTRACT

Previous studies have shown that the resolution of interpersonal value conflicts is usually more difficult than that of interpersonal resource conflicts. Nevertheless, there is no research which has systematically explored the psychological mechanisms hindering the resolution of interpersonal value conflicts. Therefore, the current study systematically discusses this issue. From the perspective of cognitive evaluation, individuals in the interpersonal value conflicts are more likely to overestimate the requirements of current situations and underestimate their own resources; from the perspective of motivational state, individuals in the interpersonal value conflicts are more likely to be in a state of threatening motivation; from the perspective of self-involvement, individuals in the interpersonal value conflicts are self-involved to more extent, and these factors may hinder the resolution of interpersonal value conflicts.

Keywords:Interpersonal Value Conflicts, Hindering, Psychological Mechanisms

Copyright © 2022 by author(s) and Hans Publishers Inc.

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution International License (CC BY 4.0).

http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

1. 引言

人际价值观冲突是在特定情境中,由于不同个体对于何为正确以及何为正当的规范信念不一致所导致的冲突(Kouzakova et al., 2014)。以往学者通常把人际价值观冲突与利益冲突(也有学者称之为资源冲突)放在一起进行对比研究。利益冲突是指对时间、空间、金钱及财物等珍稀资源的分配存在分歧所导致的冲突(Pruitt & Carnevale, 1993)。区分人际的价值观冲突与利益冲突的关键在于冲突各方建构情境的潜在动机:在价值观冲突中,个体根据自己与他人价值观的差异来建构冲突情境;而在利益冲突中,个体以利益为潜在动机来建构冲突情境(Kouzakova et al., 2012; Pruitt & Carnevale, 1993; Schuster et al., 2020)。例如,Schuster等人(2020)让被试对宾馆的选址进行谈判,在价值观冲突情境和利益冲突情境中,谈判双方对于场地的偏好都是一样的,即一方偏好中心地段,另一方偏好偏远地段。两个情境的不同之处在于,在价值观冲突情境中,谈判者选址背后的动机是不同的价值观(保护环境vs.保护传统文化);而在利益冲突情境中,谈判者则是按照客户偏好(夜生活vs.僻静)进行选址。

以往研究表明,相比人际利益冲突,人际价值观冲突更加难以解决(Harinck & Van Kleef, 2012; Harinck & Ellemers, 2014; Kouzakova et al., 2012; Kouzakova et al., 2014; Wade-Benzoni et al., 2002)。例如,研究发现价值观的介入会使冲突的谈判更多地陷入僵局(Schuster et al., 2020; Tenbrunsel et al., 2009),达成更不理想的结果(Harinck et al., 2000; Harinck & De Dreu, 2004; Tenbrunsel et al., 2009)。因此,为了更好地解决人际价值观冲突,探究阻碍其解决的心理机制是至关重要的。然而,前人研究虽然对人际价值观冲突为何难以解决背后的原因进行了探索,但却未有研究对阻碍人际价值观冲突的心理机制进行系统探究。有鉴于此,本研究在前人研究的基础上,对阻碍人际价值观冲突的心理机制进行系统的讨论和梳理,以期对价值观冲突和人际冲突的研究进行补充,并且对现实中人际价值观冲突的解决起到促进作用。

2. 阻碍人际价值观冲突解决的心理机制

2.1. 认知评价

当个体遭遇冲突情境时,他们对情境要求以及自身资源的认知评价可能影响冲突的解决(Folkman et al., 1986; Lazarus & DeLongis, 1983; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984; O’Connor et al., 2010)。一方面,个体对于价值观冲突情境的认知评价与对利益冲突情境的认知评价存在一定差异:首先,由于价值观冲突中的个体需要考虑到价值观的牺牲与否,可能很难想出怎样才是双赢的结果。因此,他们对价值观冲突情境中目标的界定会比利益冲突情境更为模糊。其次,由于个体的价值观较为稳定(Sundberg, 2016),很难改变(Schuster et al., 2019),遭遇价值观冲突的个体可能认为要让对方让步很难(Schuster et al., 2020),从而认为价值观冲突下的情境要求更高。综上所述,价值观冲突中的个体可能对于目标界定更模糊,且可能更倾向于高估情境的要求,从而导致冲突更难以解决。

另一方面,相比人际利益冲突,经历价值观冲突的个体可能会认为自己具备的资源更少。人们往往会高估他人与自己观点和偏好等的相似程度(Gilovich, 1990; Mullen et al., 1985; Ross et al., 1977; Harinck & Ellemers, 2014),即虚假共识效应(false consensus effect)。在利益冲突中,个体会假设对方和自己都想要争夺冲突中的资源,这种对于对方偏好的假设可以视作一种认知资源,助力于谈判的进行;在价值观冲突中,个体仍然可能假设对方和自己持有相同的价值观,然而当冲突显现时,个体发现自己的预期被违背,会产生一些极端的观点和负性情绪(Biernat et al., 1999; Harinck & Ellemers, 2014; Rink & Ellemers, 2007)。例如,Kouzakova等人(2012)发现当被试对人际冲突进行预期时,相比利益冲突,价值观冲突情境中的个体认为自己对于冲突中另一方的立场了解更少;不仅如此,当被试真正经历人际冲突时,价值观冲突中的被试感受到了更多的预期相似度违背,并且认为对方和自己在与谈判无关的议题上差异也更大。这些结果可能表明,由于虚假共识效应,价值观冲突情境中的个体会感知到更多的预期相似度违背,认为自己和冲突另一方的差异更大,自己更不了解对方,从而导致个体认为自己没有足够的资源来应对这场冲突。Nes等人(2005)进一步发现,个体对于自己能力的认知会影响其在谈判中的参与度,能力认知越低,参与度可能就越低。由此可以推断,由于虚假共识效应导致价值观冲突中更多的预期相似度违背,个体更有可能会认为自己缺乏应对冲突的资源和能力,从而导致更低的参与度,阻碍价值观冲突的解决。然而,Kouzakova等人的研究并没有探究预期违背是不是导致个体产生差异大和不了解等认知的原因,因此还不能断定这几个变量之间的因果关系,未来可以对此进行进一步研究。

综上所述,与人际利益冲突相比,价值观冲突情境中的个体更有可能会认为该情境中所需要的资源更多,而自己具备的资源更少。Harinck等人(2018)对男性被试的研究在一定程度上验证了这一观点。他们发现被试的睾酮水平在利益冲突情境中有所升高,而在价值观冲突情境中却并无增长;根据以往研究,睾酮水平的升高代表个体在重要的竞争环境中感到自己具备应对当前情境的资源或能力;同时,高睾酮水平与个体对自己表现的自信程度呈正相关(Eisenegger et al., 2017; Eubank et al., 1997; Salvador, 2005),这说明比起利益冲突情境,价值观冲突情境中的被试可能更少地认为自己具备应对冲突的资源或能力。然而,Harinck等人的研究仅仅包含男性被试,女性被试是否也会表现出同样的趋势尚且需要未来进行进一步验证。

2.2. 动机状态

个体对情境的认知评价进一步决定了个体在该情境中的动机状态。在价值观冲突情境中,个体更倾向于认为自己没有足够的资源来应对,因此他们更有可能表现为威胁动机状态;与此相反,在利益冲突情境中,个体更有可能认为自己有足够的资源应对,因此他们更可能表现为挑战动机状态(Blascovich & Tomaka, 1996; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984; O’Connor et al., 2010)。Kouzakova等人(2014)的研究支持了这一假设,他们以心输出量和总外周阻力作为心血管反应的指标以探究不同人际冲突情境中被试的动机状态,结果发现,在价值观冲突情境中,个体的心输出量低而总外周阻力高,即表现为威胁动机状态;与此相反,在利益冲突情境中,个体的心输出量高而总外周阻力低,即表现为挑战动机状态。

以往研究表明,威胁状态会阻碍冲突的解决。例如,有研究发现当个体把情境当作威胁时,他们在联合决策任务中放弃自己立场的可能性更低(De Wit et al., 2012),这或许是人际价值观冲突中个体更加倾向于坚持己见的原因之一。不仅如此,处于威胁中的个体还可能会采取逃避因应策略(avoidance coping),具体表现为威胁动机状态下的个体比挑战动机状态下的个体能量调动更少(Halevy et al., 2012),表现更为消极(O’Connor et al., 2010)。除此之外,Kouzakova等人(2014)的研究还发现,人际价值观冲突中的个体更有可能采取预防定向(prevention focus)这一自我调节策略。根据Higgins (1997, 1998)的调节定向理论,预防定向的个体在追求目标的过程中对于消极结果的存在与否更为敏感,对于变化更为保守(Liberman et al., 1999)。综上可知,由于价值观冲突情境中的个体更倾向于表现为威胁动机状态,因此他们比利益冲突情境中的个体更可能坚持己见,会采取逃避因应策略和预防定向策略,从而阻碍谈判的进行和冲突的解决。

对于动机状态影响个体表现背后的机制,一些学者进行了讨论。例如,Blascovich等人(2004)认为动机状态通过注意资源的分配来影响个体表现:在威胁动机状态下,个体的注意资源可能会从当前的任务转移到他们自己身上或者周围环境上,从而使得个体在冲突中更关注自身和环境,而不是如何有效解决冲突。Jones等人(2009)则认为威胁动机状态还可能会导致认知功能受损,带来负性情绪以及对情绪的负性评价。由此可知,个体对于情境和自身资源的动机评价导致了其在价值观冲突中的威胁动机状态,这一动机状态可能通过注意调控、认知调控、情绪调控来影响个体在谈判中的表现,阻碍冲突的解决。然而,对于除了逃避因应之外的其他机制,目前进行验证的实证研究相对较少(Hase, 2019),未来可进一步探明动机状态影响个体表现背后的机制。

2.3. 自我卷入

自我卷入是影响冲突发展和解决的决定性因素(Rubin et al., 1994),它可能会使冲突进一步升级,并且阻碍冲突的解决(De Dreu & van Knippenberg, 2005; Steinel et al., 2008)。由于个体的价值观与自我之间存在着密切联系,价值观冲突中个体的自我卷入程度可能比利益冲突更高。Roccas等人(2014)的实证研究表明人们认为价值观与理想自我之间存在联系,从而认为价值观是难以撼动的。此外,Yue等人(2021)的内隐研究还发现,价值观被内化进自我概念的程度与该价值观对个体的重要性有关。综上可知,在人际价值观冲突中,价值观的不一致可能会被看作对个体所认同的价值观的质疑(Kouzakova et al., 2014; Shalvi et al., 2011),从而使个体的自我遭到威胁;与此相反,在利益冲突中,由于所涉及的利益与自我概念挂钩的可能性较小,个体的自我卷入程度可能也相对较低。

Kouzakova等人(2012)的研究为这一假设提供了有力的实证依据,他们采用两个研究分别探讨在对冲突进行预期时和冲突实际发生时被试在不同类型人际冲突中的自我卷入程度。在研究一中,被试分别预期自己在人际价值观冲突情境或者利益冲突情境中的反应,结果发现,在控制冲突强度的情况下,被试在价值观冲突情境中比在利益冲突情境中体验到更多的自我卷入。值得注意的是,该研究采用了六个不同的议题,这表明价值观冲突中更高的自我卷入程度并不只局限于某个特定的议题,而是具有较高的生态效度。为了进一步探究被试在真实冲突情境中的反应,他们在研究二中以交通工具为议题,让被试作为乘飞机的反对方准备接下来的谈判。在价值观冲突情境中,被试反对乘飞机的动机在于想要保护环境;而在利益冲突情境中,被试反对乘飞机的原因在于经费有限。结果表明相比利益冲突情境,价值观冲突情境中的被试会对那些和他们持有相同价值观的人产生更多的社会认同(social identification),这可能说明价值观冲突情境中的个体自我遭到了威胁,从而通过寻求他人对自己价值观的认可来维护自我。虽然研究中采用的价值观是分配给被试的,被试对该价值观的认同程度可能有限,但该研究已经证明了在人际价值观冲突情境中个体的自我卷入程度高于利益冲突中的个体,未来可进一步探究被试自己所持有的价值观如何影响被试在价值观冲突中的自我卷入水平。除此之外,并不是所有的价值观都和自我联系紧密,有研究者认为对个体自我概念起关键作用的是个体持有的重要价值观(Hitlin, 2003; Schwartz, 2017)。由此可以推断,价值观对于个体的重要性程度可能也会影响个体的自我卷入程度,从而影响价值观冲突的解决,未来研究可对此假设进行进一步探究与验证。

在人际价值观冲突中,由于个体的自我卷入水平比较高,他们更有可能会把对方对于自己提议的反应解读为是指向自我的,从而感受到威胁和冒犯。例如,研究发现,相比针对提议的愤怒,针对个人的愤怒会招致对方的报复,而不是使对方让步(Steinel et al., 2008)。相应的,个体在利益冲突情境中认为对方的愤怒情绪是可以接受的,然而在价值观冲突情境中,虽然个体可能会表面上屈服于愤怒的对方,但他们随之可能会偷偷地对其进行报复(Harinck & Van Kleef, 2012)。这可能表明,由于个体在价值观冲突中的自我卷入程度较高,当对方表现出愤怒时,个体可能会感到愤怒是指向自己的,而不是指向自己提出的提议的,因此,他们可能会感到威胁和冒犯,并产生逆火效应。在这种情况下,对于对方的愤怒反应做出让步很可能导致对自我的否定,因此,个体会更加坚持己见,从而阻碍冲突的解决。

对于人际价值观冲突中自我威胁背后的机制,目前尚未有研究给出系统的解释。但是,我们或许可以参考个体内部价值观冲突的机制来对其进行解释。例如,Furchheim等人(2020)发现个体内部价值观冲突会影响自我概念清晰性(self-concept clarity),进而使个体产生压力,而一致性偏好在价值观冲突和自我概念清晰性之间起调节作用。基于此可以推测,在人际价值观冲突中,当个体所认同的价值观遭到否定时,个体的自我概念清晰性也可能因此减弱,使个体产生不一致、模糊的自我认知,而自我概念清晰性的降低又会进一步使个体产生压力,影响个体对冲突的认知和在冲突中的表现。不仅如此,自我概念清晰性被视作个人认同(Campbell, 1990)和自尊(Story, 2004)的重要成分,自我概念清晰性的减弱可能还会影响自我的其他部分,使得自我受到威胁。但是,这些假设都是基于推测,未来可以进一步开展研究来对其进行验证。

3. 展望

第一,情绪在价值观冲突中起到的作用尚且有待考证。价值观通常是充满情感的,表现为人们通常对符合自己价值理念的观点保持一种积极的情感偏向(黄希庭,2014)。虽然有研究表明愤怒和恐惧两种情绪在价值观冲突前后并没有显著差异(Kouzakova et al., 2012)。但是,可能还有其他的情绪影响价值观冲突的解决,例如,通常情况下经历冲突的个体会感受到压力(De Dreu et al., 2004),未来可以对这些情绪在价值观冲突中的作用进行进一步探究。

第二,个体差异如何影响其在价值观冲突中的反应目前尚不明确。例如,研究表明个体在受到自我威胁时的反应受到自尊水平和自尊稳定性的影响(Bushman & Baumeister, 1998; Kernis & Waschull, 1995),自尊水平越高,自尊越不稳定的个体产生的防御越强(Zhang, 2009),未来研究可以进一步探讨自尊等个人特质对于价值观冲突的影响。

第三,以往研究很少考虑个体价值观的等级结构特性,个体的价值观系统是以重要性程度进行排序的,因此不同重要性的价值观可能会对人际价值观冲突的形成、发展和解决造成截然不同的影响。例如,以往研究表明当决策与个体的重要特质(如智力、社会竞争力)挂钩时,个体更容易出现不理智的经济决策(Brockner et al., 1986)。除此之外,个体甚至会把核心价值观当作一种道义需要,因此,即使仅仅是违背这类价值观的想法都是不被允许的(Tetlock, 2003; Tetlock et al., 2000)。由此可知,不同重要程度的价值观对于解决价值观冲突的影响可能存在差异,未来可以在这方面进一步探究。

第四,以往的研究多数是在西方文化中进行的,未来研究可进一步探究在中国文化下人际价值观冲突有何差异。

文章引用

徐 颖. 阻碍人际价值观冲突解决的心理机制研究综述
Literature Review of Psychological Mechanisms Hindering the Resolution of Interpersonal Value Conflicts[J]. 心理学进展, 2022, 12(03): 834-841. https://doi.org/10.12677/AP.2022.123098

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