Advances in Psychology
Vol. 13  No. 06 ( 2023 ), Article ID: 67751 , 9 pages
10.12677/AP.2023.136315

决策的躯体标记假说:证据、质疑与启示

刘欣宇,许慧芳,张晨雨,荀蕾

天津师范大学心理学部,天津

收稿日期:2023年5月10日;录用日期:2023年6月19日;发布日期:2023年6月28日

摘要

近年来,情绪对决策的影响得到了越来越多的实证证据和理论解释。在诸多理论中,躯体标记假说开创性地提出了情绪指导决策(特别是模糊决策)的观点,为决策研究提供了崭新的视角。然而随着研究的深入,以爱荷华博弈任务为首的模糊决策范式在为假说输送证据的同时,也得出了许多有悖于假说的结论。这种分歧暴露了假说自身和当前研究方法中的不足。考虑到躯体标记假说的理论价值及合理性,今后的研究应进一步细化假说内容,使其更具可操作性,并对研究范式做出改善,以增强研究结果的效度、信度以及结果解释的科学性。

关键词

情绪,决策,模糊决策,躯体标记假说,爱荷华博弈任务

Somatic Marker Hypothesis of Decision-Making: Evidence, Queries and Implications

Xinyu Liu, Huifang Xu, Chenyu Zhang, Lei Xun

Faculty of Psychology, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin

Received: May 10th, 2023; accepted: Jun. 19th, 2023; published: Jun. 28th, 2023

ABSTRACT

In recent years, the influence of emotions on decision-making has received increasing empirical evidence and theoretical explanations. Among many theories, the somatic marker hypothesis pioneered the viewpoint that emotions guide decision-making (especially the decision-making under ambiguity), providing a new perspective for decision-making research. However, with the deepening of research, the decision-making paradigm led by the Iowa gambling task has not only provided evidence for the hypothesis, but also drawn many conclusions that contradict the hypothesis. This divergence exposes the shortcomings of the hypothesis itself and current research methods. Considering the theoretical value and rationality of the somatic marker hypothesis, future research should further refine the content of the hypothesis to make it more operational, and make improvements to the research paradigm to enhance the validity, reliability, and scientific interpretation of the research results.

Keywords:Emotion, Decision-Making, Ambiguity Decision-Making, Somatic Marker Hypothesis, Iowa Gambling Task

Copyright © 2023 by author(s) and Hans Publishers Inc.

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution International License (CC BY 4.0).

http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

1. 引言

许久以来,决策(decision making)普遍被视作理性的认知活动。然而,上世纪九十年代,一系列针对腹内侧前额叶(ventromedial prefrontal cortex)受损患者的研究发现,情绪(而非认知)功能的正常运作才是顺利完成决策的必要条件(Bechara, Damasio, Damasio, & Anderson, 1994; Damasio et al., 1994)。就此,神经科学家Damasio (1994)提出了“躯体标记假说(somatic marker hypothesis)”,假设由决策过程所引发的躯体反应,即情绪,可以联结起决策中的经验和预期,从而指导、帮助决策的进行。例如,当某一选项带来了有害的结果并引发了消极的躯体信号时,以腹内侧前额叶(ventrolateral prefrontal cortex,简称vmPFC)为核心的躯体标记系统便会以这种消极状态来“标示(mark)”这一选项。此后,每当再次考虑选择这一选项时,这种消极情绪就会被再次激活出来,以此警告人们不要做出这一不利决策(Bechara & Damasio, 2005; Damasio, 1994; Verweij & Damasio, 2019)。

躯体标记假说从神经科学解释了为什么人类会具有远见,提出了决策障碍与神经或精神障碍之间的关联,为神经或精神障碍的行为诊断提供了依据,为后续研究提供了崭新的视角。相应的,基于情绪视角的决策研究也为躯体标记假说积攒了证据、扩大了影响(Overskeid, 2021; Simonovic, Stupple, Gale, & Sheffield, 2019; Xu & Huang, 2020)。但与此同时,假说中许多观点的正确性仍饱受争议(Bartol & Linquist, 2014),许多证据的有效性仍饱受质疑(Chiu, Huang, Duann, & Lin, 2018),令这一经典理论既无法被否认也难以被公认,深陷于瓶颈之中。在此背景下,本文将梳理假说的主要观点以及正反证据,讨论争议背后的潜在问题,进而展望未来的研究方向。

2. 躯体标记假说视角下的决策

躯体标记假说认为,正常的情绪反应对于完成决策,特别是具有模糊性(ambiguity)或不确定性(uncertainty)的决策有着重要作用(Bechara & Damasio, 2005)。从结果上看,这种作用见效于正确决策方案的形成。而究其原因,这种作用则起源于情绪对选项性质的标示,以及由标示信息带来的有意识或无意识指导。

2.1. 情绪参与决策

有研究表明,vmPFC受损患者虽然有着正常的认知能力,但会在生活中做出更多的不当决策,且无法预测自己的行为会带来何种后果(Damasio, Tranel, & Damasio, 1990; Saver & Damasio, 1991)。这一发现促成了躯体标记假说的提出,并为假说提供了最初的轶事证据。而假说的实证证据则大多来自Bechara等人(1994)专为测量模糊决策表现、检验躯体标记假说而开发的爱荷华博弈任务(Iowa gambling task,简称IGT)。这一任务要求被试从四副具有不同奖惩排布的牌组中进行共计100次的选择,从而争取尽可能多的代币收益。各牌组的奖惩排布看似随机,实则遵循一定的规则:每张A牌和B牌都会给出$100的奖励,但有1/2的A牌会带来$150至$350的损失,1/10的B牌会带来$1250的损失;每张C牌和D牌都会给出$50的奖励,但有1/2的C牌会带来$25至$75的损失,1/10的D牌会带来$250的损失。总之,每选10张A或B牌就会带来$250的净损失,而每选10张C牌或D牌就会带来$250的净收益,因此A、B牌和C、D牌分别被统称为“坏牌”和“好牌”。

在任务开始时,被试并不清楚奖惩反馈的呈现规则,但随着任务的进行,躯体标记系统正常的健康被试会逐渐形成以好牌为主的决策方案,而vmPFC受损患者则更容易错误地被坏牌吸引(Bechara et al., 1994)。更为重要的是,对皮肤电导反应(skin conductance responses,简称SCRs)这一情绪生理指标的测量结果显示,vmPFC受损患者在决策过程中产生的情绪反应也有所异常:虽然患者与健康被试都在接收奖惩反馈时产生了反馈性的SCRs,但在选择卡牌之前,患者却不会像健康被试一样产生预期性的SCRs (Bechara, Tranel, Damasio, & Damasio, 1996)。此后还有研究发现,因杏仁核(amygdala)受损而无法做出情绪反应的脑损伤患者(Bechara, Damasio, Damasio, & Lee, 1999)以及因实验操纵而无法正常形成躯体标记的健康被试(Turnbull, Berry, & Bowman, 2003)均无法在IGT中习得有利的决策方案。这些结果说明情绪(尤其是预期性情绪)缺失与决策不利是并存的,为情绪与决策之间的联系提供了证据。特别是其中针对健康被试的研究,因其“决策不利”的结果是由“阻止躯体标记形成”的实验操纵直接造成的,所以从中可以明确,躯体标记异常是决策不利的原因,反之,有利的决策表现则是正常躯体标记活动的结果。

2.2. 躯体标记作用的心理机制

2.2.1. 躯体标记的作用原理:标示选项性质

除预测了健康人群与躯体标记系统(如vmPFC、杏仁核等脑区)受损患者的决策表现差异外,躯体标记假说也猜想了躯体标记发挥作用的原理:情绪可以对之前做出的选择行为加以标示,并通过情绪的再激活(预期性情绪的产生)来阻止人们做出被标示为消极的行为或引导人们执行被标示为积极的行为(Bechara & Damasio, 2005; Bechara et al., 1994)。

在作用原理方面,如果假说的猜想正确,那么人们在考虑选择该选项时所产生的预期性情绪应该与选择该选项后产生的反馈性情绪相类似。以往大量研究发现,健康被试们选择坏牌之前的预期性情绪与遭到损失后的反馈性情绪同样较为强烈,而选择好牌之前的预期性情绪则与得到收益后的反馈性情绪同样较为平和(Bechara, Tranel, & Damasio, 2000; Bechara et al., 1996; Mardaga & Hansenne, 2012; Visagan, Xiang, & Lamar, 2012; Wagar & Dixon, 2006),且Simonovic等人(2019)的元分析也支持了这一结论。按照躯体标记假说的解释,该现象说明被试分别用损失带来的强烈反应和收益带来的温和反应标示了曾带来净损失的坏牌和曾带来净收益的好牌。

当预期性的躯体标记被激活,其标示的信息便会指引人们回避令人不适的选项并选择令人愉悦的选项。例如在原始版本的IGT中,这种作用表现为较少地选择坏牌与较多地选择好牌(Bechara et al., 1996)。而在另一些研究中,当IGT卡牌被与自身效价相反的情绪刺激(情绪性的图片或音频)绑定在一起,被试的选择方案也会随之变化,表现为所选坏牌增多,所选好牌减少(Davies & Turnbull, 2011; Priolo, D’Alessandro, Bizzego, & Bonini, 2021)。总之,这些证据表明人们的选择是倾向于与躯体标记性质保持一致的,即支持了躯体标记对决策指导作用。

2.2.2. 躯体标记的作用途径:意识与无意识

躯体标记对模糊决策的指导作用源于其标示功能,见于决策方案的形成或改变。而在这源头与结果之间,躯体标记的作用又是如何发挥出来的呢?躯体标记假说认为,其作用途径可以分为有意识的和无意识的两种(Damasio, 1994)。

当躯体标记被个体有意识地觉察并引发出相应的主观感受(feeling),这种感受就会在意识水平上影响决策(Bechara & Damasio, 2005; Bechara et al., 1994)——可以想象,如果个体准确地觉察到了自身的躯体状态,那么便会有意地逃避令自己不适的选项、选择令自己愉悦的选项。在现有的研究中,Sebri, Triberti和Pravettoni (2023)发现被试对自身躯体状态的关注程度会对决策表现造成影响,Werner等人(2013)则指出,在心跳觉察任务中表现较好的被试也在IGT中有着更好的表现。可见,个体对自身躯体状态的有意识觉察的确与决策有关,即躯体标记是可以在有意识水平上发挥作用的。

此外,由于情绪生理反应具有自主性,因此意识并不是情绪存在以及发挥作用的必要条件(Bechara & Damasio, 2005; Bechara et al., 1994)。换言之,即使没有造成主观体验,躯体标记对决策的影响也依然存在。针对此猜想,Bechara, Damasio, Tranel和Damasio (1997)曾进行过一项研究,在考察被试的决策表现、情绪反应之余,以口头问答的形式获取了被试对选项性质的主观认识。结果发现,只要预期性SCRs一形成,即使被试尚无法汇报出自己对各牌组的主观好恶,他们的选择也会开始趋于有利(尽管此时所选好牌数量与坏牌数量之间的差异尚不显著)。此外,还有研究在IGT变式任务中发现,在被明确告知各牌组的性质已经发生反转(好牌变坏牌、坏牌变好牌)之后,被试们仍不能立刻放弃旧偏好(Stocco, Fum, & Napoli, 2009; Stocco & Fum, 2008),说明人们的选择偏好可能并不完全受意识调控,而是会受到某种无意识水平上的影响。

3. 对躯体标记假说的质疑与争议

自问世至今的近三十年的时间里,躯体标记假说在积攒大量证据同时也引起了诸多不可回避的质疑。在这些质疑中,一部分是针对于假说观点的,而另一部分则直指既有实证证据的有效性。

3.1. 假说本身的争议

3.1.1. 情绪能否标示选项的净损益

躯体标记假说对躯体标记标示作用的猜想颇具创意,也因而饱受争议。从理论角度上说,除了身为躯体标记假说思想来源的传统情绪观之外,心理建构或社会建构等当下流行的情绪理论都并不认为诱发物与情绪及其生理反应是严格对应的(Gross & Barrett, 2011),因而从根本上否认了“情绪标示选项性质”的可能。抛开理论认识的分歧,一些实证研究也给出了与假说相悖的结果。例如Tomb,Hauser,Deldin和Caramazza (2002)发现,如果赋予好牌更高的即时收益金额,那么高强度的预期性SCRs便转而出现在了选择好牌之前。可见,预期性SCRs强度是与选项的即时收益金额保持一致的,而不是像假说所预测的那样标示着选项的净损益。

针对这一批驳,假说的主要提出者和支持者Damasio,Bechara和Damasio (2002)曾提出,由于SCRs只能反映出情绪强度而不能反映情绪效价,因此两项研究中所测得的高强度预期性SCRs可能反映的是两种不同的情绪,即好牌引发的强烈积极情绪和坏牌引发的强烈消极情绪。然而迄今为止,发现这种反向躯体标记现象的研究仍然较少,而“躯体标记能否标示选项性质”这一问题的答案也仍然不甚明确。

3.1.2. 情绪能否在无意识水平上影响决策

根据假说,躯体标记的指导既可以发生在有意识的水平上,也可以发生在无意识水平上。对此,虽然鲜有研究者否认情绪感受可以有意识地指导决策,但情绪对决策的无意识影响却一直饱受质疑。

上文提到,Bechara等人(2000)曾发现被试们报告出明确偏好的时间点远远晚于躯体标记和有利决策方案形成的时间,为躯体标记的无意识作用提供了证据。然而Maia和McClelland (2004)却发现,在更严格、更细致的询问之下,被试们报告出外显知识的时间会大大提前,甚至早于正确策略的出现,说明IGT中并不存在一个完全由无意识指导的阶段。近年,Heilman和Miclea (2015)重复了Bechara等人(1997)以及Maia和McClelland (2004)的研究,所得结果与后者的相一致。虽然这些反面证据并不能直接否认躯体标记内隐作用的存在,但它们的确有效地驳倒了Bechara等人(1997)的早期证据。同时,另一些研究也发现,当决策者在IGT任务期间的情绪状态受到干扰,其选择偏好也会发生改变,说明情绪以一种自发的、难以觉察的形式影响了决策行为(İyilikci & Amado, 2018; Priolo et al., 2021)。而之后Stocco和Fum (2008)的加工分离实验虽然说明被试在决策过程中受到了某种内隐偏好的影响,但并无法证明这种偏好是情绪作用的产物而非只是行为习惯的表现,因此这一证据也并不能终结有关躯体标记无意识作用的争论。

3.2. 研究结果的争议:IGT的测量效果是否有效

因其可以成功地检测出决策障碍并衡量决策表现的有利程度,IGT一直被视作检验躯体标记假说的专用工具,为假说提供了几乎全部重要证据。然而,之后的一些研究则指出了重新审视IGT的必要性。一方面,一些研究表明IGT信度较低(Barnhart & Buelow, 2021; Buelow & Barnhart, 2018; Xu & Korczykowski, 2013),使研究者们心生疑虑;另一方面,就效度而言,一些IGT研究中的健康被试也像脑损伤患者一样表现得较差(Buelow & Suhr, 2009; Zinchenko & Enikolopova, 2017),暗示IGT测量情策水平的准确性有待商榷;最后,一些研究发现,在IGT及东吴博弈任务(Soochow Gambling Task)等IGT变式中,即使健康被试能做出良好的决策,但他们的决策依据其实是选项的奖惩频率,而非假说所预测的选项净损益(Chiu et al., 2008; Crone, Bunge, Latenstein, & van der Molen, 2007; Crone & van der Molen, 2004; Kumar, Kumar, & Benegal, 2018; Lin, Chiu, Lee, & Hsieh, 2007),也就是说他们最喜欢的并不是具有净收益的选项(IGT中的C、D牌),而是具有低惩罚频率的选项(IGT中的B、D牌)——之所以最早的一批IGT研究并未发现这种选择规律,只是因为早期研究在分析结果时仅关注了好牌与坏牌之间的差异(净损益的差异),而忽视了两副好牌之间以及两副坏牌之间的差异(奖惩频率的差异)。一旦对早期研究的原始结果重新做出更为细致的分析,便会在一些(并非所有)早期研究中发现同样的规律(Steingroever, Wetzels, Horstmann, Neumann, & Wagenmakers, 2013)。尽管后续出现的另一些IGT研究仍然能佐证任务的效度(Kildahl, Hansen, Brevers, & Skewes, 2020; Perrain, Dardennes, & Jollant, 2021; 罗禹,冯廷勇,唐向东,黄好,李红,2011;徐四华,2012),或是证明有一部分被试的确是像假说所猜想的那样以净损益为决策依据的,而“依奖惩频率做决策”可能只是健康群体内个体差异的体现(Bull, Tippett, & Addis, 2015; Steingroever et al., 2013),但质疑声音为躯体标记研究敲响的警钟是不容忽视的:作为假说的主要证据来源,如果IGT无法有效地反映出决策水平,或者IGT中存在着其他尚未被发现却无可反驳的瑕疵,那么这将是对假说证明工作的毁灭性打击。

4. 躯体标记研究的现存局限与未来展望

自从躯体标记假说被明确提出,在假说指导下的实证研究便不断涌现,使情绪促进决策的观点深入人心。然而,在情绪能否影响决策、情绪如何影响决策这些基础性问题上,研究者们至今仍未达成共识。这些分歧暴露了假说本身以及现有研究范式中的瑕疵,也反映了今后的躯体标记研究的应有发展方向。

就理论而言,虽然已有大量文献验证并分析了情绪和决策活动在行为水平或神经水平上的相关性(蔡厚德,张权,蔡琦,陈庆荣,2012;Aram et al., 2019; Bechara & Damasio, 2005; Giustiniani, Gabriel, Nicolier, Monnin, & Haffen, 2015; Li, Lu, D’Argembeau, Ng, & Bechara, 2009; Lin, Chiu, Cheng, Yeh, & Hsieh, 2015),但有关躯体标记活动背后心理机制的讨论则一直较少——在躯体标记从产生到发挥作用之间,究竟有着怎样的心理过程?原始版本的躯体标记假说并未对此做出解释。此外,由于其重心在于情绪及有关神经活动上,原版假说也很少对决策方面的问题做出细致、专业的猜想或预测(Bartol & Linquist, 2014; Damasio, 1994)。时至今日,已成为决策研究重要指导思想的躯体标记假说不该止步于此,而是应当继续修整、增补旧有猜想,进而成长为具有更强科学性和可操作性的理论。针对这些问题,Linquist和Bartol (2013)曾借鉴决策领域的研究思路,将决策的过程具体化为决策点识别(decision point recognition)、选项生成(option generation)、思考(deliberation)、评估(evaluation)、执行(execution)这五个阶段,为后人提供了深入分析决策过程的依据。未来的躯体标记研究应当循此思路,将躯体标记假说与其他更新颖的理论相结合,进而突破既有理论的教条式限制,以实证证据反哺理论,促成躯体标记假说对自身的“否定之否定”。

此外,躯体标记的研究范式中也存在着一些问题。这些问题主要体现在情绪生理测量和决策任务这两方面。

在情绪生理测量方面,现有研究中存在着测量指标不够全面的问题。从上文提到的“反向躯体标记现象”不难发现,单凭SCRs这一个指标并不能反映出情绪反应的全貌,也不能为躯体标记的存在提供充分的证据。如今,已有一些研究也考察了被试完成IGT时的心率变化、脑电活动,并得出了一些可以支持假说的结果(Bianchin & Angrilli, 2011; Cui, Chen, Wang, Shum, & Chan, 2013; Lee, Chang, & Hsiao, 2010)。今后的躯体标记研究应继续关注SCRs之外的情绪指标,甚至追随情绪领域内的进展,将情绪生理指标与机器学习技术相结合(Bulagang, Edmund Ng, Mountstephens, & Teo, 2020),从而更精确、更有效地确认被试究竟在选牌之前产生了何种情绪以便为躯体标记假说提供更全面、更具说服力的证据。

而在决策任务方面,除了最为严重的效度问题外,还有证据表明,被试的决策风格(Steingroever, Pachur, Šmíra, & Lee, 2018)、情绪状态(İyilikci & Amado, 2018; Shukla, Rasmussen, & Nestor, 2019)以及认知或执行能力(Toplak, Sorge, Benoit, West, & Stanovich, 2010)均会在一定程度上影响IGT表现,导致IGT所测得的结果中混杂了过多的决策过程之外的因素。尽管这些由任务模糊性、生态性所带来的副作用是几乎不可避免的,但这种研究思路不但无法打开决策的“黑箱”,反而还将研究引入了由IGT自身构成的“黑箱”,是不利于研究进展的。虽然当下仍然不可能抛弃IGT这一工具,但仍有必要去摸索躯体标记假说与其他决策任务的结合,并以更简单、更基础的决策任务来揭示躯体标记发挥作用的心理机制。然而值得注意的是,在目前已有的使用了其他决策任务的躯体标记研究中,有许多研究结果与假说预测不符(Agren, Millroth, Andersson, Ridzén, & Björkstrand, 2019; Wright, Rakow, & Russo, 2017; Wright & Rakow, 2017)。如果IGT之外的决策任务也会不断地向假说输送反对证据,那么反思躯体标记假说正确性甚至否定躯体标记假说、寻求替代解释的工作就有必要被提上日程。

总之,虽然躯体标记假说对情绪、决策领域有着重大意义,但如今的研究者们有必要重新审视假说的理论观点、实证证据和研究方法并弥补其不足,用更具可操作性的理论去指导研究,用更严密、有效的范式去进行研究,进而对情绪与决策之间的联系做出更详细、可信的解释。

基金项目

本研究由天津市研究生科研创新项目(2021YJSS194)资助。

文章引用

刘欣宇,许慧芳,张晨雨,荀 蕾. 决策的躯体标记假说:证据、质疑与启示
Somatic Marker Hypothesis of Decision-Making: Evidence, Queries and Implications[J]. 心理学进展, 2023, 13(06): 2555-2563. https://doi.org/10.12677/AP.2023.136315

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