Advances in Psychology
Vol. 12  No. 04 ( 2022 ), Article ID: 50091 , 8 pages
10.12677/AP.2022.124119

社会排斥后的行为反应研究综述

高鑫艳

西南大学心理学部,重庆

收稿日期:2022年3月5日;录用日期:2022年3月31日;发布日期:2022年4月11日

摘要

每个人都拥有心理需求,当这种基本的需求得以满足时,人们会感到幸福。本文讨论了当个体在社会关系中出现问题——如经历社会排斥后——会产生何种行为反应,从获得社会接受满足需求的前景不同这一出发点解决已有文献中对人们在遭受社会排斥后反应不同的分歧。社会排斥后,个体可能会采取积极方式以便重新获得认可,但当知觉到不存在被接受的可能性时,会表现出自私和反社会行为,已有相关证据可以阐明这种行为模式的发现。

关键词

社会排斥,行为反应,心理需求

A Review of Research on Behavioral Responses to Social Exclusion

Xinyan Gao

Faculty of Psychology, Southwest University, Chongqing

Received: Mar. 5th, 2022; accepted: Mar. 31st, 2022; published: Apr. 11th, 2022

ABSTRACT

Everyone has psychological needs and when this basic need is satisfied, people will feel happy. This paper discusses what kind of behavior reaction will occur when individuals have problems in social relations such as social exclusion, and tries to solve the differences on reaction to social exclusion in existing literature from the perspective of different prospects for social acceptance to meet needs. After social exclusion, people may adopt positive ways to regain acceptance, but when they perceive that there is no possibility of acceptance, they will exhibit selfish and antisocial behaviors. The existing evidence supports the findings of this behavior pattern.

Keywords:Social Exclusion, Behavioral Response, Psychological Need

Copyright © 2022 by author(s) and Hans Publishers Inc.

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution International License (CC BY 4.0).

http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

1. 引言

对积极社会关系的渴望是人类最基本、最普遍的需要之一。这种需要深深植根于进化史,并对当代人类的心理过程产生了巨大的影响(Baumeister & Leary, 1995),个体幸福在一定程度上依赖他人,有动力与他人建立持久关系有助于生存和繁衍。缺乏积极人际关系的人通常经历孤独、内疚、嫉妒、抑郁和焦虑(Leary, 1990),拥有较高的精神病发病率、免疫系统功能降低并且睡眠质量差,容易增加死亡风险。

被拒绝或排斥是日常生活中比较常见的负性事件,是非常令人厌恶的(Baumeister, Twenger, & Nuss, 2002)。根据杜建政和夏冰丽(2008)的表述,社会排斥是指个体由于被某一团体或他人所排斥或拒绝,而致使其归属需求和关系需求受到阻碍的现象和过程。它威胁着人们的四种需要,即归属、自尊、有意义的存在和控制需要,具有强大的影响力(Williams, 2007)。社会排斥有诸多表现形式,如排斥、拒绝、无视、孤立。研究发现,社会排斥会影响许多认知、情感和行为的结果,使与身体疼痛相关的脑区(如背侧前扣带皮层、前脑岛)的激活增加(DeWall et al., 2010b),并且造成消极的心理状态(Eisenberger, Lieberman, & Williams, 2003; MacDonald & Leary, 2005),Albanese等人(2021)发现对社会排斥刺激的反应性可能对自杀意念发挥重要作用,立即的同伴排斥和预期的社会排斥都对心理和人际过程有相似的影响。

社会再联系假说认为,社会排斥的经历表明一个人对社会关系的需求没有得到满足,进而激发了人们与他人联系的愿望。与那些没有被社会排斥的人相比,被社会排斥的人报告了更多的消极情绪和更强的归属需求(Chen et al., 2017)。一项研究发现,女性对排斥的反应是在随后的团队任务中更加努力,试图让自己看起来对团队更有吸引力(Williams & Sommer, 1997)。被排斥的人更有可能顺从他人的观点并回忆起更多与从属关系有关的事件。但许多研究也都观察到了对排斥的反社会反应,而不是从属反应(Buckley, Winkel, & Leary, 2004)。对于出现不同反应的解释,有研究者认为在遭受社会排斥后个体会自动参与到积极恢复的过程(Radel, Pelletier, & Sarrazin, 2013),做出亲社会的反应,以便重新建立人际连接,恢复其受损的归属需求(Maner, Wall, Baumeister, & Schaller, 2007),但这种人际恢复的过程要建立在个体能够知觉到未来存在社会接纳的可能性的基础上(DeWall & Richman, 2011)。

本文试图从满足需求被接受的前景不同对社会排斥后可能出现的行为反应进行梳理,整合相关理论模型和影响因素,为之后探讨社会排斥后行为反应的研究提供参考。

2. 社会排斥的理论模型

社会排斥的心理学理论主要包括需要–威胁时间模型、多元动机模型、情绪麻木和自我控制失败说等,本节主要介绍前两种常见的理论。

2.1. 需求–威胁时间模型(Williams, 2009)

Williams (2009)提出的需要–威胁的时间模型同样认为社会排斥阻碍了对积极和持久关系的基本需求,提出个体在经历社会排斥后会经历三个不同的阶段,每个阶段中被排斥者的心理反应会有所不同:1) 反射性阶段(Reflexive stage),反射性阶段在社会排斥之后立即发生。个体对于排斥线索非常敏感,当察觉到自己被排斥后人们会感受到痛苦,产生社会疼痛、愤怒、悲伤等负性体验,出现类似于疼痛的快速反应如血压上升,排斥事件阻碍了个体四种基本需求的满足。这个阶段不取决于社会排斥经验,例如,经历来自电脑或人的排斥产生了类似的反应(Zadro, Williams, & Richardson, 2004),有意的排斥会激活与意外排斥类似的大脑区域,来自内群体或外群体的社会排斥一样威胁人们的需要(Gonsalkorale & Williams, 2007)。2) 反思性阶段(Reflective stage),反思阶段发生在人们有时间思考他们的拒绝经历之后。这一阶段个体会对排斥事件整体如情境、排斥源、原因及重要性等进行评价和归因,参与到旨在恢复受威胁的需求的反应中,根据评估结果被排斥个体可能会出现反社会行为、亲社会行为或者回避行为(Ren, Wesselmann, & Williams, 2018)。具体来说,如果归属感和自尊这类关系需求受阻,个体会积极地采取亲社会等行为与他人重新建立社会联结,会更加开放和关注他人;而如果是效能需求(控制感/存在意义)受阻,个体可能会挑衅他人甚至采取攻击等反社会行为来恢复。3) 顺从性阶段(Resignation stage),这一阶段出现在个体长期经历排斥体验之后。如果个体反复经历社会痛苦和基本需求威胁,且不能成功满足被破坏的需求,人们会认为自己对他人的价值相当低,自己的存在是一种负担,产生类似习得性无助的表现。最终导致个体体验无助感、疏离感、抑郁状态及无价值感(Hartgerink, van Beest, Wicherts, & Williams, 2015; Williams, 2009)。

2.2. 多元动机模型(Smart Richman & Leary, 2009)

该模型与需要–威胁时间模型中认为社会排斥会对个体的基本需要产生威胁的观点一致,但认为社会排斥主要是影响个体的归属感。该模型指出,遭受社会排斥后,个体消极情绪增加,出现自尊水平降低的即时反应(Buckley, Winkel, & Leary, 2004),之后,个体可能会产生三种动机反应。第一种是亲社会动机,被排斥者有更强烈的与人交往的意愿,为寻求归属感的恢复与可能接受他们的人产生联系(Maner, DeWall, Baumeister, & Schaller, 2007)。第二种是反社会动机,在社会排斥引发的愤怒情绪下,个体会有报复的攻击性冲动(Twenge et al., 2001; Buckley et al., 2004)。最后是退缩与回避动机,个体在经历社会排斥后会回避社会交往,以避免再次体验拒绝带来的伤害(Molden et al., 2009)。三种行为动机可能会同时出现,个体对社会排斥事件做出的解释决定何种动机会占主导地位。

Smart Richman和Leary (2009)认为个体会从以下六个方面考虑——社会排斥经历的公平性、关系修复的期望、社会排斥经历的普遍性或长期性、受损关系的价值、感知社会排斥经历的成本,以及关系替代方案的可能性。如果排斥被认为是不公平的,人们会猛烈抨击并表现出愤怒;对关系修复不抱期望的想法也会导致反社会和回避行为;如果人们没有高度重视与排斥者的关系或者不相信与排斥他们的人的未来有任何希望,他们会随意报复或回避排斥者;关系替代方案的存在会鼓励退缩行为,替代性大时,关系的价值会降低,缺乏则会导致亲社会行为;长期经历排斥是导致退缩行为的最终解释,在这种情况下几乎没有机会感觉被人接受。最后,如果被排斥的感知成本很高(例如,被群体中的一个人排斥代表被整个群体排斥),则更有可能出现亲社会行为。归根结底,根据多动机模型,一个人在被排斥后的行为取决于对排斥经历的解释方式。

3. 社会排斥后的行为反应

研究者们一直关注社会排斥后的行为反应,但目前仍未能得出统一的结论,主要争论在于个体遭受排斥后是主要出现攻击性行为还是亲社会行为。对社会排斥的反应取决于对未来联系的感知可能性,基于此,本节回顾了社会排斥对这两种行为的影响。

3.1. 攻击行为

研究发现,社会排斥造成的消极情绪体验尤其是愤怒与攻击性水平有较高的一致性(DeWall et al., 2010c; Chow et al., 2008)。在实验研究中,无论是以诊断预测未来社会排斥的形式,还是以直接的同伴拒绝的形式,与未被排斥的人相比,被排斥的人用更强烈、更长时间的噪音轰击陌生人(DeWall et al., 2010c; Gaertner, Iuzzini, & O’Mara, 2008),给求职者以负面评价(DeWall, Twenge, Gitter, & Baumeister, 2009),让陌生人听烦人的录音(Buckley et al., 2004),并向那些表示非常不喜欢辣的人发放大量的辣酱(DeWall et al., 2010c; Warburton, Williams, & Cairns, 2006)或设置更长的手部冰水浸泡时间(Aydin, Fischer, & Frey, 2010)。遭遇社会排斥不仅会使人们对参与排斥的人有攻击性,还会使无辜旁观者也受影响,强烈的痛苦增加了对其他人的攻击性(Gaertner, Iuzzini, & O’Mara, 2008; Chester & DeWall, 2017; Gabbiadini & Riva, 2018)。除实验室研究外,相关性的研究发现社会排斥会导致大规模的暴力行为(Leary, Kowalski, Smith, & Phillips, 2003; Ren et al., 2018),证实了社会排斥与攻击行为的关系。

不过,这些研究很少为被社会排斥的人提供一种体验接受的方式。当给被社会排斥的人提供积极的社会活动提醒给予其少量的社会接纳时,一定程度上就消除了他们的攻击性。例如,相对于中立性质的活动,与实验者进行短暂、友好的互动,会使被社会排斥的参与者表现得不那么咄咄逼人(Twenge et al., 2007b),让被排斥的人在环境中有一种控制感,也可以降低他们的攻击性。即使与电视人物这样的模拟形象建立联系,社会排斥带来的痛苦也能减轻(Derrick, Gabriel, & Hugenberg, 2009)。求助于超自然因素,例如通过宗教,比如写一篇关于宗教信仰或环境的文章,也可以减弱社会排斥和攻击性之间的关系。

3.2. 亲社会行为

当个体知觉到被社会排斥时会尝试建构社会关系,以便获得认可与接纳,改善受威胁的状态(Lakin et al., 2008; Watson-Jones et al., 2016)。

一方面被排斥的人确实从事更多的亲社会行为,在社会排斥之后,个体对他人的要求变得更加顺从,更愿意默许对他们提出的要求(Riva, Williams, Torstrick, & Montali, 2014),会表现出更多的行为模仿和观点采择(Lakin et al., 2008; Knowles, 2014; Peng et al., 2018),更擅长照顾他人的情绪和激励(Cheung & Gardner, 2015),愿意与他人保持更近的距离,增加同他人的相似性(Chester, DeWall, & Pond Jr., 2016; Richman, Slotter, Gardner, & DeWall, 2015),并且更愿意遵从规则(Carter-Sowell, 2008),对加入俱乐部和与他人合作更感兴趣,更积极地看待他人,给潜在的互动伙伴分配更多的奖励(Bernstein, Sacco, Brown, Young, & Claypool, 2010; Maner et al., 2007)等。

研究发现,归属感的需要调节了感知到的社会排斥和帮助意愿之间的关系(Pei, Huang, & Kou, 2017)。Maner等人(2007)认为,个体会寻求另一种方法来满足受威胁的内驱力,被排斥的人想要与他人建立关系,从而做出更多的亲社会行为支持这个目标。

而这种反应只限于对与最初的排斥经历无关的新的或中性的目标(对排斥的实施者没有亲社会性),如果新目标显然不能用于亲和,或者需要他们做出自我牺牲有伤害自我的风险时,人们就会选择表现得自私一些,避免被伤害。例如与未被排斥的人相比,被社会排斥的人向慈善机构捐赠的钱更少,做志愿者的时间更短,更少帮助实验者捡起掉落的铅笔,在混合动机的游戏中表现得更不合作,移情能力也会下降(Twenge et al., 2007a)。

4. 社会排斥后行为反应的因素

从环境因素来看,研究发现金钱和药物能减少社会排斥引起的社会和生理疼痛(DeWall, Macdonald et al., 2010b; Zhou, Vohs, & Baumeister, 2009)。社会支持可减少社会排斥造成的攻击反应(DeWall et al., 2010c; Twenge et al., 2007b)。跨文化研究发现,个人主义文化背景下的人在面对社会排斥时表现出更多的反社会行为(Pfundmair, Graupmann, Frey, & Aydin, 2015)。

从个体差异的角度,排斥双方的性别构成也有影响(Braz, Wittenbaum, & Shulman, 2010)。不同特质自尊水平、社交焦虑和排斥敏感性的个体对社会排斥的反应不同(DeWall et al., 2010a; Romero-Canyas et al., 2010)。

另外,个体对排斥时间的预期(Gunther Moor, Crone, & van der Molen, 2010)、归因(Jones & Kelly, 2010)、同伴特征(Maner et al., 2007)以及与交往对象进行直接良好的互动的可能性等都是相关的影响因素。

5. 总结与展望

人类本质上渴望与他人建立积极而持久的关系,一方面会影响到人们如何体验世界,另一方面也影响他们在经历社会排斥时如何表达他们的特征,如广泛的认知和行为过程。人们的大部分想法、感受到的情绪或做出的行为都以满足归属感的需要为动机。通过了解人们对社会排斥的反应方式和原因,我们可以更好地应对或避免社会排斥带来的有害后果。

这篇文章从社会接受和需求满足的前景角度介绍了社会排斥突出的理论模型和社会排斥后的行为反应及影响因素,表明在具有潜在接纳的预期下,被排斥的个体尝试寻求与他人的重新连接,但在没有知觉到这种可能或者预期不乐观的情况下,就会放弃。

但少部分群体不满足以上假设,例如,社交快感缺乏症患者表现出对社交不感兴趣,性格孤僻,从社交互动中体验到较低水平的积极情绪(Brown, Silvia, Myin-Germeys, & Kwapil, 2007)。此外,患有自闭症谱系障碍的人在社交方面也存在缺陷。因此,这两类人可能缺乏与归属感相关的动机,对社会排斥的行为反应可能不同。未来的工作可以了解那些归属感较弱或已不存在的人对社会排斥的反应。

另外不同的人对不同类型的关系有不同程度的重视。许多研究是在实验室与之前不认识的人一起进行的。但是,社会排斥也可能涉及到朋友、家人和恋人等有重要意义的群体。迄今为止,很少有研究调查社会排斥在亲密伴侣之间的影响。Leary等人(1998)认为,当一个人被亲近的人如朋友或伴侣排斥时,受伤害的感觉会比被陌生人排斥时更强烈。一些研究表明,被伴侣拒绝会增加随后对伴侣的负面行为,如侮辱、批评或吼叫(Murray, Bellavia, Rose, & Griffin, 2003)。未来的研究可以深入亲密关系的背景,如探索在浪漫关系中被排斥后在该特定社会领域内或更广泛的范围内重新建立联系的愿望。

未来的研究还应该从多个角度来研究社会排斥,不仅要考虑个人因素,还要强调环境因素的作用,同时还需要注意社会排斥的不同阶段、原因和研究范式以及时间长短对其结果的影响等,尽可能在更广阔的范围内全面进行探讨。

文章引用

高鑫艳. 社会排斥后的行为反应研究综述
A Review of Research on Behavioral Responses to Social Exclusion[J]. 心理学进展, 2022, 12(04): 997-1004. https://doi.org/10.12677/AP.2022.124119

参考文献

  1. 1. 杜建政, 夏冰丽(2008). 心理学视野中的社会排斥. 心理科学进展, 16(6), 981-986.

  2. 2. Albanese, B. J., Capron, D. W., Macatee, R. J., Bauer, B. W., & Schmidt, N. B. (2021). Thwarted Belongingness Predicts Greater Neural Reactivity to a Novel Social Exclusion Image Set: Evidence from the Late Positive Potential. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 51, 916-930. https://doi.org/10.1111/sltb.12775

  3. 3. Aydin, N., Fischer, P., & Frey, D. (2010). Turning to God in the Face of Ostracism: Effects of Social Exclusion on Religiousness. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 36, 742-753. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167210367491

  4. 4. Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The Need to Belong: Desire for Interpersonal Attachments as a Fundamental Human Motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117, 497-529. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497

  5. 5. Baumeister, R. F., Twenge, J. M., & Nuss, C. K. (2002). Effects of Social Exclusion on Cognitive Processes: Anticipated Aloneness Reduces Intelligent Thought. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 817-827. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.83.4.817

  6. 6. Bernstein, M. J., Sacco, D. F., Brown, C. M., Young, S. G., & Claypool, H. M. (2010). A Preference for Genuine Smiles Following Social Exclusion. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46, 196-199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2009.08.010

  7. 7. Braz, M. E., Wittenbaum, G. M., & Shulman, H. C. (2010). Social Ostracism in Task Groups: The Effects of Group Composition. Small Group Research, 41, 330-353. https://doi.org/10.1177/1046496410363914

  8. 8. Brown, L. H., Silvia, P. J., Myin-Germeys, I., & Kwapil, T. R. (2007). When the Need to Belong Goes Wrong: The Expression of Social Anhedonia and Social Anxiety in Daily Life. Psychological Science, 18, 778-782. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01978.x

  9. 9. Buckley, K. E., Winkel, R. E., & Leary, M. R. (2004). Reactions to Acceptance and Rejection: Effects of Level and Sequence of Relational Evaluation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40, 14-28. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-1031(03)00064-7

  10. 10. Carter-Sowell, A. R. (2008). Ostracism Increases Social Susceptibility. Social Influence, 3, 143-153. https://doi.org/10.1080/15534510802204868

  11. 11. Chen, Z., Du, J., Min, X., Yan, Z., & Zhang, S. (2017). Social Exclusion Leads to Attentional Bias to Emotional Social Information: Evidence from Eye Movement. PLoS ONE, 12, e0186313. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0186313

  12. 12. Chester, D. S., & Dewall, C. N. (2017). Combating the Sting of Rejection with the Pleasure of Revenge: A New Look at How Emotion Shapes Aggression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 112, 413-430. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000080

  13. 13. Chester, D. S., De Wall, C. N., & Pond Jr., R. S., (2016). The Push of Social Pain: Does Rejection’s Sting Motivate Subsequent Social Reconnection? Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience, 16, 541-550. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13415-016-0412-9

  14. 14. Cheung, E. O., & Gardner, W. L. (2015). The Way I Make You Feel: Social Exclusion Enhances the Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 60, 59-75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2015.05.003

  15. 15. Chow, R. M., Tiedens, L. Z., & Govan, C. L. (2008). Excluded Emotions: The Role of Anger in Antisocial Responses to Ostracism. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44, 896-903. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2007.09.004

  16. 16. Derrick, J. L., Gabriel, S., & Hugenberg, K. J. (2009). Social Surrogacy: How Favored Television Programs Provide the Experience of Belonging. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45, 352-362. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2008.12.003

  17. 17. DeWall, C. N., & Richman, S. B. (2011). Social Exclusion and the Desire to Reconnect. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 5, 919-932. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2011.00383.x

  18. 18. DeWall, C. N., Buckner, J. D., Lambert, N. L., Cohen, A., & Fincham, F. D. (2010a). Bracing for the Worst, but Behaving the Best: Social Anxiety, Hostility, and Aggression. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 24, 260-268. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2009.12.002

  19. 19. DeWall, C. N., MacDonald, G., Webster, G. D., Masten, C., Baumeister, R. F., Powell, C. et al. (2010b). Acetaminophen Reduces Social Pain: Behavioral and Neural Evidence. Psychological Science, 21, 931-937. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610374741

  20. 20. DeWall, C. N., Twenge, J. M., Bushman, B. J., Im, C., & Williams, K. D. (2010c). Acceptance by One Differs from Acceptance by None: Applying Social Impact Theory to the Rejection-Aggression Link. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 1, 168-174. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550610361387

  21. 21. Dewall, C. N., Twenge, J. M., Gitter, S. A., & Baumeister, R. F. (2009). It’s the Thought That Counts: The Role of Hostile Cognition in Shaping Aggressive Responses to Social Exclusion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96, 45-59. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013196

  22. 22. Eisenberger, N. I., Lieberman, M. D., & Williams, K. D. (2003). Does Rejection Hurt? An fMRI Study of Social Exclusion. Science, 302, 290-292. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1089134

  23. 23. Gabbiadini, A., & Riva, P. (2018). The Lone Gamer: Social Exclusion Predicts Violent Video Game Preferences and Fuels Aggressive Inclinations in Adolescent Players. Ag-gressive Behavior, 44, 113-124. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21735

  24. 24. Gaertner, L., Iuzzini, J., & O’Mara, E. M. (2008). When Rejection by One Fosters Aggression against Many: Multiple-Victim Aggression as a Consequence of Social Rejection and Perceived Groupness. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44, 958-970. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2008.02.004

  25. 25. Gonsalkorale, K., & Williams, K. D. (2007). The KKK Won’t Let Me Play: Ostracism Even by a Despised Outgroup Hurts. European Journal of Social Psychology, 37, 1176-1186. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.392

  26. 26. Gunther Moor, B., Crone, E. A., & van der Molen, N. W. (2010). The Heartbrake of Social Rejection: Heart Rate Deceleration in Response to Unexpected Peer Rejection. Psychological Science, 21, 1326-1333. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610379236

  27. 27. Hartgerink, C. H., van Beest, I., Wicherts, J. M., & Williams, K. D. (2015). The Ordinal Effects of Ostracism: A Meta-Analysis of 120 Cyberball Studies. PLoS ONE, 10, e0127002. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0127002

  28. 28. Jones, E. E., & Kelly, J. R. (2010). “Why Am I Out of the Loop?” Attributions Influence Responses to Information Exclusion. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 36, 1186-1201. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167210380406

  29. 29. Knowles, M. L. (2014). Social Rejection Increases Perspective Taking. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 55, 126-132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2014.06.008

  30. 30. Lakin, J. L., Chartrand, T. L., & Arkin, R. M. (2008). I Am Too Just Like You: Nonconscious Mimicry as an Automatic Behavioral Response to Social Exclusion. Psychological Science, 19, 816-822. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02162.x

  31. 31. Leary, M. R. (1990). Responses to Social Exclusion: Social Anxiety, Jealousy, Loneliness, Depression, and Low Self-Esteem. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 9, 221-229. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.1990.9.2.221

  32. 32. Leary, M. R., Kowalski, R. M., Smith, L., & Phillips, S. (2003). Teasing, Rejection, and Violence: Case Studies of the School Shootings. Aggressive Behavior, 29, 202-214. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.10061

  33. 33. Leary, M. R., Springer, C., Negel, L., Ansell, E., & Evans, K. (1998). The Causes, Phenomenology, and Consequences of Hurt Feelings. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 74, 1225-1237. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.74.5.1225

  34. 34. MacDonald, G., & Leary, M. R. (2005). Why Does Social Exclusion Hurt? The Relationship between Social and Physical Pain. Psychological Bulletin, 131, 202-223. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.131.2.202

  35. 35. Maner, J. K., DeWall, C. N., Baumeister, R. F., & Schaller, M. (2007). Does Social Exclusion Motivate Interpersonal Reconnection? Resolving the “Porcupine Problem”. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92, 42-55. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.92.1.42

  36. 36. Molden, D. C., Lucas, G. M., Gardner, W. L., Dean, K., & Knowles, M. L. (2009). Motivations for Prevention or Promotion Following Social Exclusion: Being Rejected versus Being Ignored. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96, 415-31. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012958

  37. 37. Murray, S. L., Bellavia, G., Rose, P., & Griffin, D. (2003). Once Hurt, Twice Hurtful: How Perceived Regard Regulates Daily Marital Interaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 126-147. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.84.1.126

  38. 38. Pei, L. P., Huang, C., & Kou, Y. (2017). Relationship between Social Exclusion and Willingness to Help: The Moderating Role of Need to Belong. Chinese Journal of Clinical Psychology, 25, 597-602.

  39. 39. Peng, S., Leng, Y., Ge, S., Tao, D., Ding, M., Zheng, W., & Deng, H. (2018). Modulation of Behavioral and Brain Responses to Visual Perspective Taking by Social Rejection: Evidence from Electrophysiology. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 134, 135-143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2018.10.014

  40. 40. Pfundmair, M., Graupmann, V., Frey, D., & Aydin, N. (2015). The Different Behavioral Intentions of Collectivists and Individualists in Response to Social Exclusion. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 41, 363-378. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167214566186

  41. 41. Radel, R., Pelletier, L., & Sarrazin, P. (2013). Restoration Processes after Need Thwarting: When Autonomy Depends on Competence. Motivation and Emotion, 37, 234-244. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-012-9308-3

  42. 42. Ren, D., Wesselmann, E. D., & Williams, K. D. (2018). Hurt People Hurt People: Ostracism and Aggression. Current Opinion in Psychology, 19, 34-38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.03.026

  43. 43. Richman, S. B., Slotter, E. B., Gardner, W. L., & Dewall, C. N. (2015). Reaching out by Changing What’s within: Social Exclusion Increases Self-Concept Malleability. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 57, 64-77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2014.11.008

  44. 44. Riva, P., Williams, K. D., Torstrick, A. M., & Montali, L. (2014). Orders to Shoot (a Camera): Effects of Ostracism on Obedience. The Journal of Social Psychology, 154, 208-216. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.2014.883354

  45. 45. Romero-Canyas, R., Downey, G., Reddy, K. S., Rodriguez, S., Cavanaugh, T. J., & Pelayo, R. (2010). Paying to Belong: When Does Rejection Lead to Ingratiation? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 99, 802-823. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020013

  46. 46. Smart Richman, L., & Leary, M. R. (2009). Reactions to Discrimination, Stigmatization, Ostracism, and other Forms of Interpersonal Rejection: A Multimotive Model. Psychological Review, 116, 365-383. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015250

  47. 47. Twenge, J. M., Baumeister, R. F., DeWall, C. N., Ciarocco, N. J., & Bartels, J. M. (2007a). Social Exclusion Decreases Prosocial Behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92, 56-66. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.92.1.56

  48. 48. Twenge, J. M., Zhang, L., Catanese, K. R., Dolan-Pascoe, B., Lyche, L. F., & Baumeister, R. F. (2007b). Replenishing Connectedness: Reminders of Social Activity Reduce Aggression after Social Exclusion. British Journal of Social Psychology, 46, 205-224. https://doi.org/10.1348/014466605X90793

  49. 49. Twenge, J. M., Baumeister, R. F., Tice, D. M., & Stucke, T. S. (2001). If You Can’t Join Them, Beat Them: Effects of Social Exclusion on Aggressive Behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 1058-1069. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.81.6.1058

  50. 50. Warburton, W. A., Williams, K. D., & Cairns, D. R. (2006). When Ostracism Leads to Aggression: The Moderating Effects of Control Deprivation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 42, 213-220. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2005.03.005

  51. 51. Watson-Jones, R.E., Whitehouse, H., & Legare, C. H. (2016). In-Group Ostracism Increases High-Fidelity Imitation in Early Childhood. Psychological Science, 27, 34-42. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797615607205

  52. 52. Williams, K. D. (2007). Ostracism. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 425-452. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085641

  53. 53. Williams, K. D. (2009). Ostracism: A Temporal Need-Threat Model. In M. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (Vol. 41, pp. 279-314). Academic Press.

  54. 54. Williams, K. D., & Sommer, K. L. (1997). Social Ostracism by One’s Coworkers: Does Rejection Lead to Loafing or Compensation? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23, 693-706. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167297237003

  55. 55. Zadro, L., Williams, K. D., & Richardson, R. (2004). How Long Can You Go? Ostracism by a Computer Is Sufficient to Lower Self-Reported Levels of Belonging, Control, Self-Esteem, and Meaningful Existence. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40, 560-567. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2003.11.006

  56. 56. Zhou, X., Vohs, K. D., & Baumeister, R. F. (2009). The Symbolic Power of Money Reminders of Money Alter Social Distress and Physical Pain. Psychological Science, 20, 700-706. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02353.x

期刊菜单