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<article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" article-type="research-article" dtd-version="1.4" xml:lang="zh">
  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">aepe</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Advances in Energy and Power Engineering</journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="epub">2328-0506</issn>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">2328-0514</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>汉斯出版社</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.12677/aepe.2026.142007</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">aepe-139150</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group>
          <subject>Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
        <subj-group>
          <subject>工程技术</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>共享温差型高密度集成横向热电发生器设计</article-title>
        <trans-title-group xml:lang="en">
          <trans-title>Design of Shared Temperature Difference Type High-Density Integrated Transverse Thermoelectric Generator</trans-title>
        </trans-title-group>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name name-style="eastern">
            <surname>黄</surname>
            <given-names>轩</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes">
          <name name-style="eastern">
            <surname>贾</surname>
            <given-names>宏志</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1"><label>1</label> 上海理工大学光电信息与计算机工程学院，上海 </aff>
      <pub-date pub-type="epub">
        <day>07</day>
        <month>04</month>
        <year>2026</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date pub-type="collection">
        <month>04</month>
        <year>2026</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>14</volume>
      <issue>02</issue>
      <fpage>57</fpage>
      <lpage>67</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>28</day>
          <month>01</month>
          <year>2026</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>09</day>
          <month>02</month>
          <year>2026</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="published">
          <day>07</day>
          <month>04</month>
          <year>2026</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <copyright-statement>© 2026 Hans Publishers Inc. All rights reserved.</copyright-statement>
        <copyright-year>2026</copyright-year>
        <license license-type="open-access">
          <license-p> This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license ( <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/</ext-link> ). </license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <self-uri content-type="doi" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.12677/aepe.2026.142007">https://doi.org/10.12677/aepe.2026.142007</self-uri>
      <abstract>
        <p>本文基于低温共烧陶瓷工艺(LTCC)，提出一种短距离热驱动热电臂高密度集成的横向热电发电器(TEG)结构。为了实现TEG的最大化集成，所提出的器件采用冷热源交错分布的共享温差异构发电单元，热电偶进行短距离热驱动，构成热–电通路空间正交协同网络，实现纵向热流和横向电流的同步传导。同时，在冷热源之间设计了集成针孔的铝基板定向热驱来提高能量收集能力。实验结果表明在温差为80 K时，热电偶密度为12对/cm<sup>2</sup>的横向TEG最大输出电压为46.7 mV，并且最大输出功率因子为10.42 µW/cm<sup>2</sup>。与双层非接触式型TEG相比，发电能力提高了61.31%。该设计为未来高性能、紧凑型热电能量转换器件提供参考。</p>
      </abstract>
      <trans-abstract xml:lang="en">
        <p>Based on the Low Temperature Co-Fired Ceramic (LTCC) technology, this paper proposes a transverse thermoelectric generator (TEG) structure with high-density integration of short-distance thermally-driven thermoelectric arms. To achieve the maximum integration of the TEG, the proposed device adopts a shared temperature difference configuration of alternating cold and hot sources for power generation units, and uses thermocouples for short-distance thermally-driven, forming a spatial orthogonal cooperative network of heat-electric pathways to achieve synchronous conduction of longitudinal heat flow and lateral current. Meanwhile, an integrated aluminum substrate with needle holes is designed to provide directional thermal drive between the cold and hot sources to enhance the energy collection capability. Experimental results show that at a temperature difference of 80 K, the maximum output voltage of the transverse TEG with a thermocouple density of 12 pairs/cm<sup>2</sup> is 46.7 mV, and the maximum output power factor is 10.42 µW/cm<sup>2</sup>. Compared with the double-layer non-contact type TEG, the power generation capacity has increased by 61.31%. This design provides a reference for future high-performance and compact thermoelectric energy conversion devices.</p>
      </trans-abstract>
      <kwd-group kwd-group-type="author-generated" xml:lang="zh">
        <kwd>共享温差</kwd>
        <kwd>短距离热驱</kwd>
        <kwd>高密度集成</kwd>
        <kwd>横向热电发电器</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <kwd-group kwd-group-type="author-generated" xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Sharing Temperature Difference</kwd>
        <kwd>Short-Distance Thermal Driving</kwd>
        <kwd>High-Density Integration</kwd>
        <kwd>Transverse Thermoelectric Generator</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec id="sec1">
      <title>1. 引言</title>
      <p>随着全球能源需求持续增长与环境问题的日益严峻，开发高效、可靠的环境能量收集技术已成为研究热点。热电发电技术利用塞贝克效应，能够将废热或温差直接转换为电能，为分布式传感器、可穿戴电子及物联网节点等微功率设备提供了一种极具潜力的自供能解决方案[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>][<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>]。传统热电发电器通常采用纵向结构，即热流方向与电流方向平行，其性能严重依赖于沿厚度方向构筑大的温差，这通常需要配置散热器，限制了其在紧凑空间和面向热源应用中的集成度与效率[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>][<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>]。为了克服这些限制，横向热电发电器应运而生。在这种构型中，热流方向与所产生的电流方向垂直，允许器件在平面内工作，更易于与平面热源集成，并有利于实现热电材料的高密度、微纳尺度集成[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>][<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>]。然而，如何在小面积内有效构筑并维持显著的横向温差，同时实现热电材料的高效、高密度化集成，是提升横向TEG输出性能与功率密度的核心挑战[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>][<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>]。</p>
      <p>近年来，基于微机电系统与先进封装工艺的横向TEG设计取得了显著进展。例如，采用微加工技术制备的薄膜型横向TEG展示了优异的集成潜力[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>][<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>]。但其在极端温度下的热稳定性不足的问题仍需进一步解决[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>]。相比之下，低温共烧陶瓷(LTCC)技术以其优异的三维布线能力、高热稳定性和可批量制造的特点，为构建高密度、高性能的横向TEG提供了理想的平台[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>]-[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>]。众多学者对不同LTCC基横向热电器件的结构设计和性能优化进行了一系列的研究。Markowski团队率先利用该技术实现了三维热电结构制备[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>]，但受制于热电材料在共烧过程中的兼容性问题，器件易发生形变，导致制造良率偏低。为改善材料相容性，Jaziri等人基于LTCC工艺设计了一种具有圆柱形凹槽的陶瓷基热电发电器，其热适应性增强，成品率显著提升[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>]。然而，该结构中热电偶的塞贝克系数偏低，且在高温环境下导电性能受限。针对此问题，同一研究团队在后续工作中进一步优化了热电材料性能，并通过引入柱状铝板与内置空腔结构优化了热流路径，从而降低了热损失。改进后器件在高温下的导电性能提升了70%，并验证了Ag/PdAg热电偶对的优越性，其塞贝克系数提升36% [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>]。但这些基于接触的热传导结构由于其巨大的接触热阻而遭受严重的热损失，限制了其性能的提高。最近，我们设计了一种具有非接触式垂直热耦合的双层Y型横向热电发生器。所获得的最大输出功率因数为1.12 nW/cm<sup>2</sup>∙K<sup>2</sup>，相比于接触式提高了40%。然而，这种结构具有较宽的热电壁间距和较低的单位密度限制了其发电能力，发电密度仅为9.07 × 10<sup>−</sup><sup>2</sup> μW/cm<sup>2</sup> [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>]。</p>
      <p>本文提出了一种短距离热驱动热电臂高密度集成的横向热电发电器结构。该器件采用冷热源交错分布的共享温差异构发电单元，构成热–电通路空间正交协同网络，形成高密度、高发电能量采集模块。</p>
    </sec>
    <sec id="sec2">
      <title>2. 热电结构单元</title>
      <fig id="fig1">
        <label>Figure 1</label>
        <graphic xlink:href="https://html.hanspub.org/file/2770542-rId14.jpeg?20260407035615" />
      </fig>
      <p><bold>Figure 1.</bold> (a) Vertical thermocouple unit; (b) Horizontal thermocouple unit; (c) Equivalent circuit model; (d) TEG classification</p>
      <p><bold>图</bold><bold>1.</bold> (a) 纵向热电偶单元；(b) 横向热电偶单元；(c) 等效电路模型；(d) TEG分类</p>
      <p>TEG由多个连接的热电臂组成，通过塞贝克效应进行温差发电。塞贝克效应的微观原理源于固态物理学的载流子输运理论。当两种不同材料接触并在交界处存在温度梯度时，由于材料内部电子的热扩散速率与迁移率的差异，电子在温度较高的区域受到热激发后，会趋向于从高温端向低温端扩散[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>]。这个过程中，电子携带的能量差异体现在电荷分布的变化上，进而形成跨接在两种材料接触界面处的电势差，即塞贝克电动势，如<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig1">图1(a)</xref>、<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig1">图1(b)</xref>所示。热电偶由两种不同的材料制成，具有相反的塞贝克系数，在它们的末端连接。由于塞贝克效应，两个TCs端之间出现温度梯度Δ<italic>T</italic> = <italic>T</italic><italic><sub>hot</sub></italic> − <italic>T</italic><italic><sub>cold</sub></italic>，产生电压，表示为[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>]：</p>
      <disp-formula id="FD1">
        <label>(1)</label>
        <mml:math>
          <mml:mrow>
            <mml:mo>
            </mml:mo>
            <mml:msub>
              <mml:mi>V</mml:mi>
              <mml:mrow>
                <mml:mi>o</mml:mi>
                <mml:mi>u</mml:mi>
                <mml:mi>t</mml:mi>
              </mml:mrow>
            </mml:msub>
            <mml:mo>
            </mml:mo>
            <mml:mo>=</mml:mo>
            <mml:mo>
            </mml:mo>
            <mml:mi>N</mml:mi>
            <mml:msub>
              <mml:mi>α</mml:mi>
              <mml:mrow>
                <mml:mi>p</mml:mi>
                <mml:mi>n</mml:mi>
              </mml:mrow>
            </mml:msub>
            <mml:mi>Δ</mml:mi>
            <mml:mi>T</mml:mi>
          </mml:mrow>
        </mml:math>
      </disp-formula>
      <p>式中<italic>N</italic>为连接热电偶的个数，<italic>α</italic><italic><sub>pn</sub></italic>为形成热电偶的P型材料和N型材料的塞贝克系数(<italic>α</italic><italic><sub>pn</sub></italic> = <italic>α</italic><italic><sub>p</sub></italic> − <italic>α</italic><italic><sub>n</sub></italic>)，产生的电动势的效果如<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig1">图1(c)</xref>所示。当热电偶串联时，总内阻与它们的数量<italic>N</italic>成正比，因此，尽管热电偶数量增加会增加TEG传递的电压，但相应地也会增加器件内阻，对器件的影响是不利的。实际上，串联TCs数量的增加会导致TEG内阻的上升，其表示为：</p>
      <disp-formula id="FD2">
        <label>(2)</label>
        <mml:math>
          <mml:mrow>
            <mml:mo>
            </mml:mo>
            <mml:msub>
              <mml:mi>R</mml:mi>
              <mml:mrow>
                <mml:mi>T</mml:mi>
                <mml:mi>E</mml:mi>
                <mml:mi>G</mml:mi>
              </mml:mrow>
            </mml:msub>
            <mml:mo>
            </mml:mo>
            <mml:mo>=</mml:mo>
            <mml:mo>
            </mml:mo>
            <mml:mi>N</mml:mi>
            <mml:mrow>
              <mml:mo>(</mml:mo>
              <mml:mrow>
                <mml:mfrac>
                  <mml:mrow>
                    <mml:msub>
                      <mml:mi>ρ</mml:mi>
                      <mml:mi>p</mml:mi>
                    </mml:msub>
                    <mml:msub>
                      <mml:mi>L</mml:mi>
                      <mml:mi>p</mml:mi>
                    </mml:msub>
                  </mml:mrow>
                  <mml:mrow>
                    <mml:msub>
                      <mml:mi>S</mml:mi>
                      <mml:mi>p</mml:mi>
                    </mml:msub>
                  </mml:mrow>
                </mml:mfrac>
                <mml:mo>+</mml:mo>
                <mml:mfrac>
                  <mml:mrow>
                    <mml:msub>
                      <mml:mi>ρ</mml:mi>
                      <mml:mi>n</mml:mi>
                    </mml:msub>
                    <mml:msub>
                      <mml:mi>L</mml:mi>
                      <mml:mi>n</mml:mi>
                    </mml:msub>
                  </mml:mrow>
                  <mml:mrow>
                    <mml:msub>
                      <mml:mi>S</mml:mi>
                      <mml:mi>n</mml:mi>
                    </mml:msub>
                  </mml:mrow>
                </mml:mfrac>
                <mml:mo>+</mml:mo>
                <mml:mn>2</mml:mn>
                <mml:mfrac>
                  <mml:mrow>
                    <mml:msub>
                      <mml:mi>ρ</mml:mi>
                      <mml:mi>C</mml:mi>
                    </mml:msub>
                    <mml:msub>
                      <mml:mi>L</mml:mi>
                      <mml:mi>C</mml:mi>
                    </mml:msub>
                  </mml:mrow>
                  <mml:mrow>
                    <mml:msub>
                      <mml:mi>S</mml:mi>
                      <mml:mi>C</mml:mi>
                    </mml:msub>
                  </mml:mrow>
                </mml:mfrac>
              </mml:mrow>
              <mml:mo>)</mml:mo>
            </mml:mrow>
          </mml:mrow>
        </mml:math>
      </disp-formula>
      <p>式中，<italic>ρ</italic><italic><sub>p</sub></italic>、<italic>ρ</italic><italic><sub>n</sub></italic>、<italic>ρ</italic><italic><sub>C</sub></italic>分别为P型材料和N型材料和金属接触点的电阻率。<italic>L</italic><italic><sub>p</sub></italic>和<italic>L</italic><italic><sub>n</sub></italic>是热流穿过的热电偶臂长，<italic>L</italic><italic><sub>C</sub></italic>是接触长度。<italic>S</italic><italic><sub>p</sub></italic>、<italic>S</italic><italic><sub>n</sub></italic>、<italic>S</italic><italic><sub>C</sub></italic>分别为P、N型热电偶和触点截面积。发电机的输出功率为：</p>
      <disp-formula id="FD3">
        <label>(3)</label>
        <mml:math>
          <mml:mrow>
            <mml:mo>
            </mml:mo>
            <mml:mi>P</mml:mi>
            <mml:mo>=</mml:mo>
            <mml:msubsup>
              <mml:mi>V</mml:mi>
              <mml:mrow>
                <mml:mi>o</mml:mi>
                <mml:mi>u</mml:mi>
                <mml:mi>t</mml:mi>
              </mml:mrow>
              <mml:mrow>
                <mml:mo>
                </mml:mo>
                <mml:mn>2</mml:mn>
              </mml:mrow>
            </mml:msubsup>
            <mml:mfrac>
              <mml:mrow>
                <mml:msub>
                  <mml:mi>R</mml:mi>
                  <mml:mi>L</mml:mi>
                </mml:msub>
              </mml:mrow>
              <mml:mrow>
                <mml:msup>
                  <mml:mrow>
                    <mml:mrow>
                      <mml:mo>(</mml:mo>
                      <mml:mrow>
                        <mml:msub>
                          <mml:mi>R</mml:mi>
                          <mml:mrow>
                            <mml:mi>T</mml:mi>
                            <mml:mi>E</mml:mi>
                            <mml:mi>G</mml:mi>
                          </mml:mrow>
                        </mml:msub>
                        <mml:mo>+</mml:mo>
                        <mml:msub>
                          <mml:mi>R</mml:mi>
                          <mml:mi>L</mml:mi>
                        </mml:msub>
                      </mml:mrow>
                      <mml:mo>)</mml:mo>
                    </mml:mrow>
                  </mml:mrow>
                  <mml:mn>2</mml:mn>
                </mml:msup>
              </mml:mrow>
            </mml:mfrac>
            <mml:mo>
            </mml:mo>
          </mml:mrow>
        </mml:math>
      </disp-formula>
      <p>其中<italic>R</italic><italic><sub>L</sub></italic>和<italic>R</italic><italic><sub>TEG</sub></italic>分别为外负载和内阻。如果负载电阻与内部TEG的电阻<italic>R</italic><italic><sub>TEG</sub></italic>匹配，则最大输出功率表示为[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>]：</p>
      <disp-formula id="FD4">
        <label>(4)</label>
        <mml:math>
          <mml:mrow>
            <mml:mi>P</mml:mi>
            <mml:mo>=</mml:mo>
            <mml:mfrac>
              <mml:mrow>
                <mml:msubsup>
                  <mml:mi>V</mml:mi>
                  <mml:mrow>
                    <mml:mi>o</mml:mi>
                    <mml:mi>u</mml:mi>
                    <mml:mi>t</mml:mi>
                  </mml:mrow>
                  <mml:mrow>
                    <mml:mo>
                    </mml:mo>
                    <mml:mn>2</mml:mn>
                  </mml:mrow>
                </mml:msubsup>
              </mml:mrow>
              <mml:mrow>
                <mml:mn>4</mml:mn>
                <mml:msub>
                  <mml:mi>R</mml:mi>
                  <mml:mrow>
                    <mml:mi>T</mml:mi>
                    <mml:mi>E</mml:mi>
                    <mml:mi>G</mml:mi>
                  </mml:mrow>
                </mml:msub>
              </mml:mrow>
            </mml:mfrac>
          </mml:mrow>
        </mml:math>
      </disp-formula>
      <p>TEG设计应该包括两个额外的基板，放置在模块的热电偶和冷热接触面之间。在这种情况下，衬底的导热系数会影响模块的温差，特别是当它远低于热电偶的温差时。这将减少TC臂之间的温差。热电偶之间的温差变化如下：</p>
      <disp-formula id="FD5">
        <label>(5)</label>
        <mml:math>
          <mml:mrow>
            <mml:mo>
            </mml:mo>
            <mml:mi>Δ</mml:mi>
            <mml:msub>
              <mml:mi>T</mml:mi>
              <mml:mrow>
                <mml:mi>T</mml:mi>
                <mml:mi>E</mml:mi>
              </mml:mrow>
            </mml:msub>
            <mml:mo>=</mml:mo>
            <mml:mfrac>
              <mml:mrow>
                <mml:msub>
                  <mml:mi>θ</mml:mi>
                  <mml:mrow>
                    <mml:mi>T</mml:mi>
                    <mml:mi>E</mml:mi>
                  </mml:mrow>
                </mml:msub>
              </mml:mrow>
              <mml:mrow>
                <mml:msub>
                  <mml:mi>θ</mml:mi>
                  <mml:mrow>
                    <mml:mi>T</mml:mi>
                    <mml:mi>E</mml:mi>
                  </mml:mrow>
                </mml:msub>
                <mml:mo>+</mml:mo>
                <mml:msub>
                  <mml:mi>θ</mml:mi>
                  <mml:mi>h</mml:mi>
                </mml:msub>
                <mml:mo>+</mml:mo>
                <mml:msub>
                  <mml:mi>θ</mml:mi>
                  <mml:mi>c</mml:mi>
                </mml:msub>
              </mml:mrow>
            </mml:mfrac>
            <mml:mi>Δ</mml:mi>
            <mml:msub>
              <mml:mi>T</mml:mi>
              <mml:mrow>
                <mml:mi>T</mml:mi>
                <mml:mi>E</mml:mi>
                <mml:mi>G</mml:mi>
              </mml:mrow>
            </mml:msub>
            <mml:mo>
            </mml:mo>
          </mml:mrow>
        </mml:math>
      </disp-formula>
      <p>式中，∆<italic>T</italic><italic><sub>TEG</sub></italic>为两基材之间的温差，<italic>θ</italic><italic><sub>TE</sub></italic>、<italic>θ</italic><italic><sub>h</sub></italic>、<italic>θ</italic><italic><sub>c</sub></italic>分别为热电偶、热板和冷板的热阻。</p>
      <p>在热电偶结构中，纵向型与横向型热电偶展现了各自独特的性能特点。<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig1">图1(a)</xref>中<italic>π</italic>型热电偶采用简单的串行结构设计，通过交替连接n型和p型热电材料形成热电偶单元，热量流通常垂直于电流方向流动，单元间距受电极宽度与绝缘间隙限制。相比之下，Y型热电偶采用了更为复杂的三维布局，如<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig1">图1(b)</xref>所示。采用Y形排列结构，该设计在更小尺寸内集成更多热电偶，实现高效的热量汇集与散发。同时，TEG的结构与材料选择紧密关联。纵向结构侧重于工艺兼容性，常采用与集成电路工艺兼容的材料以实现微型化集成。横向结构为追求高性能，多选用晶体或取向性热电材料以优化面内热电输运。而混合结构则着眼于可靠性与宏观集成，普遍采用金属或合金材料，如<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig1">图1(d)</xref>所示。</p>
    </sec>
    <sec id="sec3">
      <title>3. TEG设计与仿真</title>
      <sec id="sec3dot1">
        <title>3.1. TEG设计</title>
        <fig id="fig2">
          <label>Figure 2</label>
          <graphic xlink:href="https://html.hanspub.org/file/2770542-rId25.jpeg?20260407035617" />
        </fig>
        <p><bold>Figure 2.</bold> High-density integrated transverse TEG structure and detailed diagram; (a) Overall morphology design; (b) Enlarged detail diagram of shared temperature difference short-distance thermoelectric arm design</p>
        <p><bold>图</bold><bold>2.</bold> 高密度集成横向TEG结构及细节图；(a) 整体形貌图设计；(b) 共享温差短距离热电臂设计细节放大图</p>
        <p>借助中心辐射型结构的设计思想，提出了共享温差短距离热电臂高密度集成的Y型TEG器件结构如<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig2">图2</xref>所示。与传统的TEG器件不同，本工作构建了4组冷热源交错的异构发电单元嵌套阵列，在有限的空间内实现热电偶数量的最大化集成，如<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig2">图2(a)</xref>所示。此外，重构热传递路径，设计将TC不与热源直接接触而更换为共享通孔将器件表面热传递到中间层热电腿。这种精确引导热量流向指定区域的方式更有助于缓解不同材料之间的热膨胀差异，进而实现温度均匀分布。在TEG器件内部，采用PdAg制备6 μm厚度的N型TC臂，Ag制备6 μm厚度的P型TC臂，实现短距离热驱动。在TEG外部，建立交替式分布的冷热源驱动热电偶节点的顶部和底部界面，从而实现了温差的共享。为了方便于测试，扩大冷热源接触金属面以增强TEG的导热效果，确保高效能量转换。在发电过程中，构建热–电通路空间正交协同网络。具体地，热能纵向垂直导入，驱动载流子横向迁移，激发沿着TC端的横向电流，最终实现纵向热流与横向电流的同步传导，如<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig2">图2(b)</xref>所示。器件总共集成316条厚度为6 μm的热电臂，形成一个热电偶密度为12对/cm<sup>2</sup>的横向TEG装置。</p>
      </sec>
      <sec id="sec3dot2">
        <title>3.2. TEG仿真</title>
        <p>在本文研究的数值仿真体系中，使用COMSOL构建了一个基于有限元方法的多物理场耦合模型，以精确表征三维集成化热电发电器件的综合性能。模型严格依据实际器件的低温共烧陶瓷工艺参数进行几何建模与物性定义。装置的支撑结构为LTCC DP 951基底，其几何构型定义为面积13 cm<sup>2</sup>、厚度约1.5 mm的矩形薄板。</p>
        <fig id="fig3">
          <label>Figure 3</label>
          <graphic xlink:href="https://html.hanspub.org/file/2770542-rId26.jpeg?20260407035617" />
        </fig>
        <p><bold>Figure 3.</bold> COMSOL simulation results; (a) Electrical potential distribution of the device; (b) Thermal distribution of the aluminum plate component; (c) Thermal distribution within the TEG</p>
        <p><bold>图</bold><bold>3.</bold> COMSOL仿真效果；(a) 器件电势分布；(b) 铝板组件的热分布；(c) TEG内部的热分布</p>
        <p>热电转换核心单元由158对P-N型热电偶对构成，在电流与固体传热耦合的热电效应多物理场接口中进行建模。单支热电腿被参数化为长2.4 mm、宽0.4 mm、高6 μm的立方体结构。P型腿材料指定为Ag，N型腿为PdAg合金，二者的关键热电材料属性包括塞贝克系数、电导率、热导率均以温度相关函数的形式导入，以精确模拟热场与电场的非线性耦合行为。所有热电臂通过高深宽比的金属化通孔实现层间电气互联，通孔模型为直径0.217 mm、高度0.76 mm的圆柱体，材料为Ag，其在电流场中被定义为理想导体，同时在热场中考虑其导热贡献。</p>
        <p>用于外部电路连接的冷热接触面被建模为边长为1.2 mm的正方形面域，材料同为Ag，在仿真中作为电学边界条件(电压终端或接地)的施加区域。整个模型在COMSOL Multiphysics环境中通过稳态研究步进行求解，同时求解电荷守恒定律、能量守恒定律及焦耳热生成方程，完整实现了热–电的多物理场双向耦合分析。冷端温度设置为恒定的270 K，而热端温度每次递增5 K。为了模拟实际的测试环境，<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig3">图3</xref>显示了通过上下铝板进行热传导的器件模块的温度和电势分布。可以观察到，当冷端温度为270 K，热端温度为360 K时，高密度集成TEG产生的电势为60 mV。</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec id="sec4">
      <title>4. 器件制备</title>
      <fig id="fig4">
        <label>Figure 4</label>
        <graphic xlink:href="https://html.hanspub.org/file/2770542-rId27.jpeg?20260407035618" />
      </fig>
      <p><bold>Figure 4.</bold> The manufacturing process of the device: (a) Pouring the base material with slurry; (b) Layering; (c) Drilling holes by laser; (d) Filling the through holes using traditional thick-film screen printing; (e) Printing on the conductor lines using thick-film printing technology; (f) Interlayer stacking; (g) Isostatic pressing of the laminates; (h) Forming high-density TEG device units after sintering</p>
      <p><bold>图</bold><bold>4.</bold> 器件的制造过程；(a) 从泥浆浇注基材；(b) 分层；(c) 通过激光打孔进行打孔；(d) 使用传统厚膜丝网印刷的通孔填充；(e) 使用厚膜印刷技术在导线上印刷；(f) 层间堆积；(g) 等静压叠层；(h) 烧结后形成高密度TEG器件单元</p>
      <p>LTCC技术被用于制造共享温差短距离热电臂高密度集成的横向TEG器件，整个制造过程如<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig4">图4</xref>所示。首先，以DuPont 951陶瓷浆料为介质材料，通过流延成型制备生瓷带，并根据设计规格进行精密切片，形成标准厚度为0.54 mm的生坯片层。随后，利用精密模具对每一单层生坯进行数控冲孔，形成特定位置与尺寸的通孔，作为垂直互连的准备结构。关键步骤包括通孔填充与电路成形。采用高导电性浆料，通过丝网印刷或微注射工艺精确填充通孔，形成垂直互连的导孔。同时，在同一生坯片层表面，利用高精度丝网印刷技术，依次印刷导体浆料以形成平面电路图形与互联边界。完成图形化的单层生坯经检查后，按照预设的堆叠顺序进行精确对位与叠层组装。叠层体随后被置于等静压设备中，在均匀的高压作用下实现层间致密化结合，消除内部空隙并确保结构完整性。最后，叠层体在严格控制的烧结炉中进行共烧，通过优化的温度曲线使陶瓷介质与内嵌金属导体在1123~1173 K的峰值温度下同步致密化，形成monolithic的三维互连结构。烧结后器件总厚度约为1.5 mm，其中集成的通孔与多层布线实现了热电偶对在空间中的高密度布局与高效电学连接。在材料选择方面，考虑到兼容性和性能要求，Ag/PdAg合金被选作热电偶材料，因其具有较高的塞贝克系数和较低的电阻率，能够有效提升热电转换效率。</p>
    </sec>
    <sec id="sec5">
      <title>5. 结果与结论</title>
      <sec id="sec5dot1">
        <title>5.1. 实验设置</title>
        <fig id="fig5">
          <label>Figure 5</label>
          <graphic xlink:href="https://html.hanspub.org/file/2770542-rId28.jpeg?20260407035619" />
        </fig>
        <p><bold>Figure 5.</bold> (a) Prototype of the device manufactured by low-temperature co-firing ceramic technology; (b) Test platform; (c) Test cross-section; (d) Upper and lower aluminum plates with grooves and the integrated TEG device module</p>
        <p><bold>图</bold><bold>5.</bold> (a) 使用低温共烧陶瓷技术制造的器件原型；(b) 测试平台；(c) 测试横截面；(d) 带有凹槽的上下铝板和整体TEG装置模块</p>
        <p><xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig5">图5</xref>展示了所制造的TEG器件原型和测试环境。装置两侧的VDD和GND焊盘被用来测量收集的电能。热源采用JF-966B型微电脑控制加热平台。实验数据实时记录采用安拜AT4708温度数据记录仪和安捷伦34,405 A数字万用表，以水冷系统(输出功率44 W，流量20 L/min)作为TEG系统的冷源。制作的TEG被组装成带有两个包含空腔的铝板的夹层结构。由于空气介质的导热系数较小，因此在铝板上设计了一种槽形结构，以在不同的冷热源周围形成高度集中的热量。需要注意的是，铝板纵向的实测温差(Δ<italic>T</italic><italic><sub>v</sub></italic>)不能代表横向TEG两端的真实温差(Δ<italic>T</italic><italic><sub>g</sub></italic>)。它可以由各部分的热阻和获得的温度数据来确定，如公式(5)所示。同时Y型横向TEG之间的LTCC厚度较薄，因此TCs两端的温度与热源和热沉的温度基本保持一致，能够形成足够大的温差激发电压。</p>
      </sec>
      <sec id="sec5dot2">
        <title>5.2. 发电能力</title>
        <fig id="fig6">
          <label>Figure 6</label>
          <graphic xlink:href="https://html.hanspub.org/file/2770542-rId29.jpeg?20260407035620" />
        </fig>
        <fig id="fig7">
          <label>Figure 7</label>
          <graphic xlink:href="https://html.hanspub.org/file/2770542-rId30.jpeg?20260407035619" />
        </fig>
        <p>(a) (b)</p>
        <p><bold>Figure 6.</bold> (a) Compare the output voltage and unit area power of the high-density TEG with and without cavities, as they change with Δ<italic>T</italic><italic><sub>v</sub></italic> on both sides of the device and Δ<italic>T</italic><italic><sub>g</sub></italic> on both sides of the TC; (b) Compare the output voltage and unit area power of the high-density TEG with and without cavities, as they change with Δ<italic>T</italic><italic><sub>v</sub></italic> on both sides of the device and Δ<italic>T</italic><italic><sub>g</sub></italic> on both sides of the TC</p>
        <p><bold>图</bold><bold>6.</bold> (a) 比较无腔槽高密度TEG输出电压和单位面积功率随器件两侧Δ<italic>T</italic><italic><sub>v</sub></italic>和TC两侧Δ<italic>T</italic><italic><sub>g</sub></italic>的变化；(b) 比较有腔槽高密度TEG输出电压和单位面积功率随器件两侧Δ<italic>T</italic><italic><sub>v</sub></italic>和TC两侧Δ<italic>T</italic><italic><sub>g</sub></italic>的变化</p>
        <p><xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig6">图6(a)</xref>和<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig6">图6(b)</xref>展示出了共享温差短距离热电臂高密度集成的横向TEG在没有和有腔槽的情况下，输出电压和单位面积输出功率与Δ<italic>T</italic><italic><sub>v</sub></italic>和Δ<italic>T</italic><italic><sub>g</sub></italic>的关系。在没有腔槽的器件结构情况下，当Δ<italic>T</italic><italic><sub>v</sub></italic> = 80 K时，高密度TEG输出电压为11.67 mV，输出功率因子为0.65 μW/cm<sup>2</sup>。而同样的Δ<italic>T</italic><italic><sub>v</sub></italic>在有腔槽的器件结构情况下，器件输出电压为46.7 mV，输出功率因子为10.42 μW/cm<sup>2</sup>。此时，在有腔槽的情况下，TCs端的Δ<italic>T</italic><italic><sub>g</sub></italic>为6.4 K，而没有腔槽的TCs端的Δ<italic>T</italic><italic><sub>g</sub></italic>仅为2.7 K，热能传递效率提升了2倍以上。上述实验数据的最大误差不超过5%。结果表明，采用空气介质均匀分布的腔槽，可以较好地将热量集中在冷热源上，使热电偶两端的温差较大。同时为了验证共享温差短距离热电臂高密度集成的横向TEG器件的负载驱动能力，在Δ<italic>T</italic><italic><sub>v</sub></italic> = 200 K的情况下，将器件与不同电导率的金属铁负载进行串联测试。根据阻抗匹配，负载电阻<italic>R</italic><italic><sub>L</sub></italic>等于TEG内阻<italic>R</italic><italic><sub>TEG</sub></italic>时能产生最大输出功率。并且通过公式(2) (3)计算对比分析，当铁的电阻为16.1 Ω时，TEG达到最大输出功率538.76 μW/m<sup>2</sup>。此时TEG器件的内阻也仅为16.1 Ω。所设计的热电偶电阻非常小，这是因为共享温差短距离热电臂高密度集成的横向TEG器件的TCs之间没有导热金属过渡，而是直接相连，并且由Ag和PdAg制成，而不是传统的半导体热电材料Bi<sub>2</sub>Te<sub>3</sub>。需要指出的是，与基于半导体材料的MEMS TEG相比，虽然采用金属热电材料的LTCC基TEG在热电转换效率方面相对较低，仅为2%左右，但在耐高温性、工艺集成简单性以及制造成本控制方面展现出明显优势，尤其适用于对高温稳定性和系统集成友好性要求较高的应用场景。</p>
      </sec>
      <sec id="sec5dot3">
        <title>5.3. 性能比较</title>
        <p><xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig7">图7(a)</xref>和<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig7">图7(b)</xref>对比了共享温差短距离横向TEG与双层非接触式TEG的输出性能。可以看出，输出电压与温差成正比，而输出功率与温差的平方成正比，与仿真结果一致。<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig7">图7(a)</xref>表明在Δ<italic>T</italic> = 60 K的情况下，共享温差短距离横向TEG在有接触热阻影响下的实验结果为2.83 mV/cm<sup>2</sup>，比双层非接触式TEG实验结果的输出电压因子高出2.11 mV/cm<sup>2</sup>。<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig7">图7(b)</xref>表明在Δ<italic>T</italic> = 60 K的情况下，共享温差短距离横向TEG的输出功率因子比双层非接触式TEG输出功率因子高6.49 μW/cm<sup>2</sup>。</p>
        <fig id="fig8">
          <label>Figure 8</label>
          <graphic xlink:href="https://html.hanspub.org/file/2770542-rId31.jpeg?20260407035620" />
        </fig>
        <fig id="fig9">
          <label>Figure 9</label>
          <graphic xlink:href="https://html.hanspub.org/file/2770542-rId32.jpeg?20260407035620" />
        </fig>
        <p>(a) (b)</p>
        <p><bold>Figure 7.</bold> (a) Comparison of output voltages between shared temperature difference short-distance transverse TEG and non-contact TEG; (b) Comparison of output powers between shared temperature difference short-distance transverse TEG and non-contact TEG</p>
        <p><bold>图</bold><bold>7.</bold> (a) 共享温差短距离横向TEG与非接触式TEG的输出电压比较；(b) 共享温差短距离横向TEG与非接触式TEG的输出功率比较</p>
        <p>在热电偶密度上，共享温差短距离横向TEG为12对/cm<sup>2</sup>，而双层非接触式TEG的密度仅为10对/cm<sup>2</sup> [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>]。上述实验数据的最大误差不超过5%。结果表明共享温差短距离横向TEG相比于双层非接触式TEG能够集成更多的热电偶，在冷热端温差相同的情况下，能够产生更大的电压。因此发电效率大幅提升，高达0.25 μW/cm<sup>2</sup>∙K<sup>2</sup>。先前报道的使用BiTe材料的<italic>π</italic>型TEG的最大功率因子为9.6 × 10<sup>−</sup><sup>2</sup> μW/cm<sup>2</sup>∙K<sup>2</sup> [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>]，柔性TEG器件的最大功率因子为4.16 × 10<sup>−</sup><sup>2</sup> nW/cm<sup>2</sup>∙K<sup>2</sup> [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>]，基于Ag/Ni材料的TEG器件的最大功率因子为0.33 nW/cm<sup>2</sup>∙K<sup>2</sup> [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>]。本研究提出的共享温差短距离横向TEG的输出性能优于以上器件，具体细节参数如表1所示。</p>
        <p><bold>Table 1.</bold> Comparison of different TEG performance</p>
        <p><bold>表</bold><bold>1.</bold> 不同TEG性能比较</p>
        <table-wrap id="tbl1">
          <label>Table 1</label>
          <table>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>作者年份</td>
                <td>结构</td>
                <td>热电偶数量</td>
                <td>
                  Δ
                  <italic>T</italic>
                  <italic>
                    <sub>g</sub>
                  </italic>
                  (K)
                </td>
                <td>
                  <italic>P</italic>
                  (μW/cm
                  <sup>2</sup>
                  )
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  Luo
                  <italic>et al.</italic>
                  [
                  <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>
                  ], 2024
                </td>
                <td>柔性Y型</td>
                <td>8</td>
                <td>7</td>
                <td>
                  5.35 × 10
                  <sup>−</sup>
                  <sup>3</sup>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  Jaziri
                  <italic>et al.</italic>
                  [
                  <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>
                  ], 2021
                </td>
                <td>圆柱形凹槽</td>
                <td>104</td>
                <td>24</td>
                <td>0.19</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  Shiotsu
                  <italic>et al.</italic>
                  [
                  <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>
                  ], 2020
                </td>
                <td>
                  纵向
                  <italic>π</italic>
                  型
                </td>
                <td>70</td>
                <td>10</td>
                <td>9.6</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>This work</td>
                <td>高密度Y型</td>
                <td>158</td>
                <td>6.4</td>
                <td>10.42</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec id="sec6">
      <title>6. 结论</title>
      <p>本文提出了一种新型基于LTCC的共享温差短距离高密度集成的横向热电发电器。它集成共享温差异构发电单元进行短距离温差驱动。同时构建热流与电流路径的几何垂直设计实现能量转换的协同优化，发电密度显著提升。结合导热铝板的多腔槽设计，进一步提高了性能。实验结果表明在温差为80 K时，该器件的最大输出电压因子为3.59 mV/cm<sup>2</sup>，最大输出功率因子为10.42 µW/cm<sup>2</sup>，热电转换效率约为2%。尽管采用的Ag/PdAg金属热电材料因塞贝克系数较低导致热电优值有限，但该设计在高温稳定性、工艺集成度与成本控制方面具有优势，适用于对集成友好性要求较高的小型电子系统能量收集。</p>
    </sec>
    <sec id="sec7">
      <title>NOTES</title>
      <p><sup>*</sup>通讯作者。</p>
    </sec>
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